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LIBRARY 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 


PRESENTED  BY 

ALMA  WILLIAMS 
UCSB 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/educationalreforOOelioiala 


EDUCATIONAL   REFORM 


EDUCATIONAL    REFORM 


ESSAYS  AND 
ADDRESSES 


BY 

CHARLES  WILLIAM  ELIOT,  LL.  D. 

PRESIDENT  OF  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


NEW  YORK 

Zl)c  Century  Co. 

1898 


Copyright,  1898,  by 
The  Century  Co. 


The  De  Vinne  Press. 


LIBRARY 

fiWTERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

SAJJiXA  BARBAIU 


PREFACE 

THE  papers  contained  in  this  volume  have  been 
selected  from  a  much  larger  number  on  the 
ground  that  they  set  forth  with  clearness  and  suf- 
ficient amplitude  the  various  educational  reforms  I 
have  been  trying  to  promote  during  the  past  thirty 
years.  They  are  arranged  chronologically.  Most  of 
them  were  lectures  or  addresses  delivered  at  pub- 
lic meetings,  some  having  been  read  from  manu- 
script, and  others  having  been  prepared  after  the 
original  delivery  by  revising  shorthand  reports. 
The  speeches  will  be  easily  recognized  by  their 
style. 

No  changes  have  been  made  in  these  papers,  ex- 
cept a  few  insignificant  corrections  affecting  the 
form  but  not  the  sense.  When  such  phrases  occur 
as  "ten  years  ago"  or  "during  the  past  twenty 
years,"  the  time  is  always  to  be  understood  as  reck- 
oned from  the  date  of  the  paper. 

Inasmuch  as  I  have  been  urging  similar  princi- 
ples or  measures  of  reform  at  various  stages  of 
education,  there  is  necessarily  some  repetition  of 
doctrines  and  arguments  in  the  series  of  addresses. 
Indeed,  some  repetition  was  inevitable,  since  almost 
all  the  reforms  advocated  in  the  later  papers  are 
distinctly  though  slightly  outlined  in  the  first  ad- 
dress in  the  collection  —  an  address  delivered  in 

vii 


Preface 

1869.  So  slow  is  the  progress  of  educational  reform. 
So  easy  is  it  to  discern  educational  improvements ; 
so  hard  to  get  them  carried  out  in  practice. 

On  one  subject  treated  in  that  first  address  (pp.  9 
and  10),  namely,  the  expediency  of  putting  college 
examinations  into  the  hands  of  persons  who  are  not 
college  teachers,  I  no  longer  hold  the  views  there 
expressed;  but  in  general  the  papers  in  this  vol- 
ume express  my  present  opinions  and  beliefs. 


0.  W.  E. 


Cambridge, 
April  18,  1898. 


VIU 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

I  Inaugural  Address  as  President  of  Harvard 

College       1 

II  Address  at  the  Inauguration  op  Daniel  C. 

GiLMAN 41 

III  Teachers'  Tenure  of  Office      ....  49 

rv  On  the  Education  of  Ministers    ...  61 

V  What  is  a  Liberal  Education?        ...  89 

VI  Liberty  in  Education 125 

VII  Can  School  Programmes  be  Shortened  and 

Enriched? 151 

VIII  An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School  179 
IX  The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Col- 
leges          197 

X  The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education  .  .  223 
XI  Shortening    and    Enriching   the    Grammar- 

ScHOOL  Course 253 

XII  Undesirable   and   Desirable   Uniformity   in 

Schools 273 

XIII  The  Grammar  School  of  the  Future         .  303 

XIV  The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform         .       .  315 
XV  Medical  Education  of  the  Future      .       .  343 

XVI  A  Wider  Range  of  Electives  in  College  Ad- 
mission Requirements 375 

XVII  An  Urban  University 395 

XVIII  The  Function   of  Education  in  Democratic 

Society 401 


IX 


INAUGURAL  ADDRESS  AS 
PRESIDENT  OF  HARVARD  COLLEGE 

October  19,   1869 


INAUGURAL  ADDRESS  AS 
PRESIDENT  OF  HARVARD  COLLEGE 


THE  endless  controversies  whether  language, 
philosophy,  mathematics,  or  science  supplies 
the  best  mental  training,  whether  general  educa- 
tion should  be  chiefly  literary  or  chiefly  scientific, 
have  no  practical  lesson  for  us  to-day.  This  Uni- 
versity recognizes  no  real  antagonism  between  lit- 
erature and  science,  and  consents  to  no  such  nar- 
row alternatives  as  mathematics  or  classics,  science 
or  metaphysics.  We  would  have  them  all,  and  at 
their  best.  To  observe  keenly,  to  reason  soundly, 
and  to  imagine  vividly  are  operations  as  essential 
as  that  of  clear  and  forcible  expression;  and  to 
develop  one  of  these  faculties,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  repress  and  dwarf  the  others.  A  university  is 
not  closely  concerned  with  the  applications  of 
knowledge,  until  its  general  education  branches 
into  professional.  Poetry  and  philosophy  and  sci- 
ence do  indeed  conspire  to  promote  the  material 
welfare  of  mankind;  but  science  no  more  than 
poetry  finds  its  best  warrant  in  its  utility.    Truth 


Inaugural  Address 

and  right  are  above  utility  in  all  realms  of  thought 
and  action. 

It  were  a  bitter  mockery  to  suggest  that  any 
subject  whatever  should  be  taught  less  than  it 
now  is  in  American  colleges.  The  only  conceiv- 
able aim  of  a  college  government  in  our  day  is  to 
broaden,  deepen,  and  invigorate  American  teach- 
ing in  all  branches  of  learning.  It  will  be  genera- 
tions before  the  best  of  American  institutions  of 
education  will  get  growth  enough  to  bear  pruning. 
The  descendants  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  are  stiU 
very  thankful  for  the  parched  corn  of  learning. 

Recent  discussions  have  added  pitifully  little  to 
the  world's  stock  of  wisdom  about  the  staple  of 
education.  Who  blows  to-day  such  a  ringing 
trumpet-call  to  the  study  of  language  as  Luther 
blew  ?  Hardly  a  significant  word  has  been  added 
in  two  centuries  to  Milton's  description  of  the  un- 
profitable way  to  study  languages.  Would  any 
young  American  learn  how  to  profit  by  travel, 
that  foolish  beginning  but  excellent  sequel  to  edu- 
cation, he  can  find  no  apter  advice  than  Bacon's. 
The  practice  of  England  and  America  is  literally 
centuries  behind  the  precept  of  the  best  thinkers 
upon  education.  A  striking  illustration  may  be 
found  in  the  prevailing  neglect  of  the  systematic 
study  of  the  English  language.  How  lamentably 
true  to-day  are  these  words  of  Locke :  "  If  any  one 
among  us  have  a  facility  or  purity  more  than  or- 
dinary in  his  mother-tongue,  it  is  owing  to  chance, 
or  his  genius,  or  anything  rather  than  to  his  edu- 
cation or  any  care  of  his  teacher." 


y^s  President  of  Harvard  College 

The  best  result  of  the  discussion  which  has 
raged  so  long  about  the  relative  educational  value 
of  the  main  branches  of  learning  is  the  conviction 
that  there  is  room  for  them  all  in  a  sound  scheme, 
provided  that  right  methods  of  teaching  be  em- 
ployed. It  is  not  because  of  the  limitation  of 
their  faculties  that  boys  of  eighteen  come  to  col- 
lege, having  mastered  nothing  but  a  few  score 
pages  of  Latin  and  Greek,  and  the  bare  elements 
of  mathematics.  Not  nature,  but  an  unintelligent 
system  of  instruction  from  the  primary  school 
through  the  college,  is  responsible  for  the  fact  that 
many  college  graduates  have  so  inadequate  a  con- 
ception of  what  is  meant  by  scientific  observation, 
reasoning,  and  proof.  It  is  possible  for  the  young 
to  get  actual  experience  of  all  the  principal 
methods  of  thought.  There  is  a  method  of  thought 
in  language,  and  a  method  in  mathematics,  and 
another  of  natural  and  physical  science,  and  an- 
other of  faith.  With  wise  direction,  even  a  child 
would  drink  at  all  these  springs.  The  actual 
problem  to  be  solved  is  not  what  to  teach,  but 
how  to  teach.  The  revolutions  accomplished  in 
other  fields  of  labor  have  a  lesson  for  teachers. 
New  England  could  not  cut  her  hay  with  scythes, 
or  the  West  her  wheat  with  sickles.  When  mil- 
lions are  to  be  fed  where  formerly  there  were  but 
scores,  the  single  fish-line  must  be  replaced  by 
seines  and  trawls,  the  human  shoulders  by  steam- 
elevators,  and  the  wooden-axled  ox-cart  on  a  cor- 
duroy road  by  the  smooth-running  freight-train. 
In  education,  there  is  a  great  hungry  multitude  to 

3 


Inaugural  Address 

be  fed.  The  great  well  at  Orvieto,  up  whose 
spiral  paths  files  of  donkeys  painfully  brought  the 
sweet  water  in  kegs,  was  an  admirable  construc- 
tion in  its  day;  but  now  we  tap  Fresh  Pond  in 
our  chambers.  The  Orvieto  well  might  remind 
some  persons  of  educational  methods  not  yet  ex- 
tinct. With  good  methods,  we  may  confidently 
hope  to  give  young  men  of  twenty  to  twenty-five 
an  accurate  general  knowledge  of  all  the  main 
subjects  of  human  interest,  besides  a  minute  and 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  one  subject  which  each 
may  select  as  his  principal  occupation  in  life.  To 
think  this  impossible  is  to  despair  of  mankind ;  for 
unless  a  general  acquaintance  with  many  branches 
of  knowledge,  good  so  far  as  it  goes,  be  attainable 
by  great  numbers  of  men,  there  can  be  no  such 
thing  as  an  intelligent  public  opinion ;  and  in  the 
modern  world  the  intelligence  of  public  opinion  is 
the  one  indispensable  condition  of  social  progress. 
What  has  been  said  of  needed  reformation  in 
methods  of  teaching  the  subjects  which  have  al- 
ready been  nominally  admitted  to  the  American 
curriculum  applies  not  only  to  the  university,  but 
to  the  preparatory  schools  of  every  grade  down  to 
the  primary.  The  American  college  is  obliged  to 
supplement  the  American  school.  Whatever  ele- 
mentary instruction  the  schools  fail  to  give,  the 
college  must  supply.  The  improvement  of  the 
schools  has  of  late  years  permitted  the  college  to 
advance  the  grade  of  its  teaching,  and  adapt  the 
methods  of  its  later  years  to  men  instead  of  boys. 
This  improvement  of  the  college  reacts  upon  the 

4 


As  President  of  Harvard  College 

schools  to  their  advantage;  and  this  action  and 
reaction  will  be  continuous.  A  university  is  not 
built  in  the  air,  but  on  social  and  literary  foun- 
dations which  preceding  generations  have  be- 
queathed. If  the  whole  structure  needs  rebuilding, 
it  must  be  rebuilt  from  the  foundation.  Hence, 
sudden  reconstruction  is  impossible  in  our  high 
places  of  education.  Such  inducements  as  the  Col- 
lege can  offer  for  enriching  and  enlarging  the 
course  of  study  pursued  in  preparatory  schools, 
the  Faculty  has  recently  decided  to  give.  The  re- 
quirements in  Latin  and  Greek  grammar  are  to  be 
set  at  a  thorough  knowledge  of  forms  and  general 
principles;  the  lists  of  classical  authors  accepted 
as  equivalents  for  the  regular  standards  are  to  be 
enlarged;  an  acquaintance  with  physical  geogra- 
phy is  to  be  required;  the  study  of  elementary 
mechanics  is  to  be  recommended,  and  prizes  are  to 
be  offered  for  reading  aloud,  and  for  the  critical 
analysis  of  passages  from  English  authors.  At  the 
same  time  the  University  will  take  to  heart  the 
counsel  which  it  gives  to  others. 

In  every  department  of  learning  the  University 
would  search  out  by  trial  and  reflection  the  best 
methods  of  instruction.  The  University  believes 
in  the  thorough  study  of  language.  It  contends 
for  all  languages  —  Oriental,  Greek,  Latin,  Eo- 
mance,  German,  and  especially  for  the  mother- 
tongue;  seeing  in  them  all  one  institution,  one 
history,  one  means  of  discipline,  one  department 
of  learning.    In  teaching  languages,  it  is  for  this 


Inaugural  Address 

American  generation  to  invent,  or  to  accept  from 
abroad,  better  tools  than  the  old ;  to  devise,  or  to 
transplant  from  Europe,  prompter  and  more  com- 
prehensive methods  than  the  prevailing;  and  to 
command  more  intelligent  labor,  in  order  to  gather 
rapidly  and  surely  the  best  fruit  of  that  culture 
and  have  time  for  other  harvests. 

The  University  recognizes  the  natural  and  phy- 
sical sciences  as  indispensable  branches  of  educa- 
tion, and  has  long  acted  upon  this  opinion ;  but  it 
would  have  science  taught  in  a  rational  way,  ob- 
jects and  instruments  in  hand  —  not  from  books 
merely,  not  through  the  memory  chiefly,  but  by 
the  seeing  eye  and  the  informing  fingers.  Some 
of  the  scientific  scoffers  at  gerund  grinding  and 
nonsense  verses  might  well  look  at  home ;  the  pre- 
vailing methods  of  teaching  science,  the  world  over, 
are,  on  the  whole,  less  intelligent  than  the  methods 
of  teaching  language.  The  University  would  have 
scientific  studies  in  school  and  college  and  profes- 
sional school  develop  and  discipline  those  powers 
of  the  mind  by  which  science  has  been  created  and 
is  daily  nourished — the  powers  of  observation,  the 
inductive  faculty,  the  sober  imagination,  the  sin- 
cere and  proportionate  judgment.  A  student  in 
the  elements  gets  no  such  training  by  studying 
even  a  good  text-book,  though  he  really  master  it, 
nor  yet  by  sitting  at  the  feet  of  the  most  admirable 
lecturer. 

If  there  be  any  subject  which  seems  fixed  and 
settled  in  its  educational  aspects,  it  is  the  mathe- 
matics ;  yet  there  is  no  department  of  the  Univer- 

6 


As  President  of  Harvard  College 

sity  which  has  been,  during  the  last  fifteen  years, 
in  such  a  state  of  vigorous  experiment  upon  meth- 
ods and  appliances  of  teaching  as  the  mathemati- 
cal department.  It  would  be  well  if  the  primary 
schools  had  as  much  faith  in  the  possibility  of 
improving  their  way  of  teaching  multiplication. 

The  important  place  which  history,  and  mental, 
moral,  and  political  philosophy,  should  hold  in  any 
broad  scheme  of  education  is  recognized  of  all;  but 
none  know  so  well  how  crude  are  the  prevailing 
methods  of  teaching  these  subjects  as  those  who 
teach  them  best.  They  cannot  be  taught  from 
books  alone,  but  must  be  vivified  and  illustrated 
by  teachers  of  active,  comprehensive,  and  judicial 
mind.  To  learn  by  rote  a  list  of  dates  is  not  to 
study  history.  Mr.  Emerson  says  that  history  is 
biography.  In  a  deep  sense  this  is  true.  Certainly, 
the  best  way  to  impart  the  facts  of  history  to  the 
young  is  through  the  quick  interest  they  take  in 
the  lives  of  the  men  and  women  who  fill  great  his- 
torical scenes  or  epitomize  epochs.  From  the  cen- 
ters so  established,  their  interest  may  be  spread 
over  great  areas.  For  the  young  especially,  it  is 
better  to  enter  with  intense  sympathy  into  the 
great  moments  of  history,  than  to  stretch  a  thin 
attention  through  its  weary  centuries. 

Philosophical  subjects  should  never  be  taught 
with  authority.  They  are  not  established  sciences; 
they  are  full  of  disputed  matters,  open  questions, 
and  bottomless  speculations.  It  is  not  the  func- 
tion of  the  teacher  to  settle  philosophical  and 
political  controversies  for  the  pupil,  or  even  to 


Inaugural  Address 

recommend  to  him  any  one  set  of  opinions  as  bet- 
ter than  another.  Exposition,  not  imposition,  of 
opinions  is  the  professor's  part.  The  student 
should  be  made  acquainted  with  all  sides  of  these 
controversies,  with  the  salient  points  of  each  sys- 
tem ;  he  should  be  shown  what  is  still  in  force  of 
institutions  or  philosophies  mainly  outgrown,  and 
what  is  new  in  those  now  in  vogue.  The  very 
word  "education"  is  a  standing  protest  against 
dogmatic  teaching.  The  notion  that  education  con- 
sists in  the  authoritative  inculcation  of  what  the 
teacher  deems  true  may  be  logical  and  appropriate 
in  a  convent,  or  a  seminary  for  priests,  but  it  is 
intolerable  in  universities  and  public  schools,  from 
primary  to  professional.  The  worthy  fruit  of  aca- 
demic culture  is  an  open  mind,  trained  to  careful 
thinking,  instructed  in  the  methods  of  philosophic 
investigation,  acquainted  in  a  general  way  with 
the  accumulated  thought  of  past  generations,  and 
penetrated  with  humility.  It  is  thus  that  the  uni- 
versity in  our  day  serves  Christ  and  the  church. 

The  increasing  weight,  range,  and  thoroughness 
of  the  examination  for  admission  to  college  may 
strike  some  observers  with  dismay.  The  increase 
of  real  requisitions  is  hardly  perceptible  from  year 
to  year ;  but  on  looking  back  ten  or  twenty  years, 
the  changes  are  marked,  and  all  in  one  direction. 
The  dignity  and  importance  of  this  examination 
have  been  steadily  rising,  and  this  rise  measures 
the  improvement  of  the  preparatory  schools. 
When    the    gradual   improvement    of   American 

8 


As  President  of  Harvard  College 

schools  has  lifted  them  to  a  level  with  the  German 
gymnasia,  we  may  expect  to  see  the  American  col- 
lege bearing  a  nearer  resemblance  to  the  German 
faculties  of  philosophy  than  it  now  does.  The 
actual  admission  examination  may  best  be  com- 
pared with  the  first  examination  of  the  University 
of  France.  This  examination,  which  comes  at  the 
end  of  a  French  boy's  school  life,  is  for  the  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Arts  or  of  Sciences.  The  degree  is 
given  to  young  men  who  come  fresh  from  school 
and  have  never  been  under  university  teachers ;  a 
large  part  of  the  recipients  never  enter  the  univer- 
sity. The  young  men  who  come  to  our  examina- 
tion for  admission  to  college  are  older  than  the 
average  of  French  Bachelors  of  Arts.  The  exami- 
nation tests  not  only  the  capacity  of  the  candi- 
dates, but  also  the  quality  of  their  school  instruc- 
tion ;  it  is  a  great  event  in  their  lives,  though  not, 
as  in  France,  marked  by  any  degree.  The  exami- 
nation is  conducted  by  college  professors  and 
tutors  who  have  never  had  any  relations  whatever 
with  those  examined.  It  would  be  a  great  gain  if 
all  subsequent  college  examinations  could  be  as 
impartially  conducted  by  competent  examiners 
brought  from  without  the  college  and  paid  for  their 
services.  When  the  teacher  examines  his  class, 
there  is  no  effective  examination  of  the  teacher. 
If  the  examinations  for  the  scientific,  theological, 
medical,  and  dental  degrees  were  conducted  by 
independent  boards  of  examiners,  appointed  by 
professional  bodies  of  dignity  and  influence,  the 
significance  of  these  degrees  would  be  greatly  en- 

9 


Inaugural  Address 

hanced.  The  same  might  be  said  of  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Laws,  were  it  not  that  this  degree  is, 
at  present,  earned  by  attendance  alone,  and  not 
by  attendance  and  examination.  The  American 
practice  of  allowing  the  teaching  body  to  examine 
for  degrees  has  been  partly  dictated  by  the  scarcity 
of  men  outside  the  faculties  who  are  at  once  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  the  subjects  of  examina- 
tion, and  sufficiently  versed  in  teaching  to  know 
what  may  fairly  be  expected  of  both  students  and 
instructors.  This  difficulty  could  now  be  overcome. 
The  chief  reason,  however,  for  the  existence  of  this 
practice  is  that  the  faculties  were  the  only  bodies 
that  could  confer  degrees  intelligently,  when  de- 
grees were  obtained  by  passing  through  a  pre- 
scribed course  of  study  without  serious  checks, 
and  completing  a  certain  term  of  residence  with- 
out disgrace.  The  change  in  the  manner  of  earn- 
ing the  University  degrees  ought,  by  right,  to  have 
brought  into  being  an  examining  body  distinct  from 
the  teaching  body.  So  far  as  the  College  proper  is 
concerned,  the  Board  of  Overseers  have,  during 
the  past  year,  taken  a  step  which  tends  in  this 
direction. 

The  rigorous  examination  for  admission  has  one 
good  effect  throughout  the  college  course:  it  pre- 
vents a  waste  of  instruction  upon  incompetent 
persons.  A  school  with  a  low  standard  for  admis- 
sion and  a  high  standard  of  graduation,  like  West 
Point,  is  obliged  to  dismiss  a  large  proportion  of 
its  students  by  the  way.  Hence  much  individual 
distress,  and  a  great  waste  of  resources,  both  pub- 
ic 


As  President  of  Harvard  College 

lie  and  private.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  must 
not  be  supposed  that  every  student  who  enters 
Harvard  College  necessarily  graduates.  Strict  an- 
nual examinations  are  to  be  passed.  More  than 
a  fourth  of  those  who  enter  the  College  fail  to  take 
their  degree. 

Only  a  few  years  ago,  all  students  who  gradu- 
ated at  this  College  passed  through  one  uniform 
curriculum.  Every  man  studied  the  same  sub- 
jects in  the  same  proportions,  without  regard  to 
his  natural  bent  or  preference.  The  individual 
student  had  no  choice  of  either  subjects  or  teach- 
ers. This  system  is  still  the  prevailing  system 
among  American  colleges,  and  finds  vigorous  de- 
fenders. It  has  the  merit  of  simplicity.  So  had  the 
school  methods  of  our  grandfathers — one  primer, 
one  catechism,  one  rod  for  all  children.  On  the 
whole,  a  single  common  course  of  studies,  tolera- 
bly well  selected  to  meet  the  average  needs,  seems 
to  most  Americans  a  very  proper  and  natural 
thing,   even  for  grown  men. 

As  a  people,  we  do  not  apply  to  mental  activi- 
ties the  principle  of  division  of  labor ;  and  we  have 
but  a  halting  faith  in  special  training  for  high 
professional  employments.  The  vulgar  conceit 
that  a  Yankee  can  turn  his  hand  to  anything  we 
insensibly  carry  into  high  places,  where  it  is  pre- 
posterous and  criminal.  We  are  accustomed  to 
seeing  men  leap  from  farm  or  shop  to  court-room 
or  pulpit,  and  we  half  believe  that  common  men 
can  safely  use  the  seven-league  boots  of  genius. 

II 


Inaugural  Address 

What  amount  of  knowledge  and  experience  do  we 
habitually  demand  of  our  lawgivers?  What  spe- 
cial training  do  we  ordinarily  think  necessary  for 
our  diplomatists  ?  —  although  in  great  emergencies 
the  nation  has  known  where  to  turn.  Only  after 
years  of  the  bitterest  experience  did  we  come  to 
believe  the  professional  training  of  a  soldier  to  be 
of  value  in  war.  This  lack  of  faith  in  the  prophecy 
of  a  natural  bent,  and  in  the  value  of  a  discipline 
concentrated  upon  a  single  object,  amounts  to  a 
national  danger. 

In  education,  the  individual  traits  of  different 
minds  have  not  been  sufficiently  attended  to. 
Through  aU  the  period  of  boyhood  the  school  stud- 
ies should  be  representative ;  all  the  main  fields  of 
knowledge  should  be  entered  upon.  But  the  young 
man  of  nineteen  or  twenty  ought  to  know  what  he 
likes  best  and  is  most  fit  for.  If  his  previous  train- 
ing has  been  sufficiently  wide,  he  will  know  by  that 
time  whether  he  is  most  apt  at  language  or  phi- 
losophy or  natural  science  or  mathematics.  If  he 
feels  no  loves,  he  will  at  least  have  his  hates.  At 
that  age  the  teacher  may  wisely  abandon  the 
school-dame's  practice  of  giving  a  copy  of  nothing 
but  zeros  to  the  child  who  alleges  that  he  cannot 
make  that  figm'e.  When  the  revelation  of  his  own 
peculiar  taste  and  capacity  comes  to  a  young  man, 
let  him  reverently  give  it  welcome,  thank  God, 
and  take  courage.  Thereafter  he  knows  his  way 
to  happy,  enthusiastic  work,  and,  Grod  willing, 
to  usefulness  and  success.  The  civilization  of  a 
people  may  be  inferred  from  the  variety  of  its 

12 


/4s  President  of  Harvard  College 

tools.  There  are  thousands  of  years  between  the 
stone  hatchet  and  the  machine-shop.  As  tools 
multiply,  each  is  more  ingeniously  adapted  to  its 
own  exclusive  purpose.  So  with  the  men  that 
make  the  State.  For  the  individual,  concentra- 
tion, and  the  highest  development  of  his  own  pe- 
culiar faculty,  is  the  only  prudence.  But  for  the 
State,  it  is  variety,  not  uniformity,  of  intellectual 
product,  which  is  needful. 

These  principles  are  the  justification  of  the  sys- 
tem of  elective  studies  which  has  been  gradually 
developed  in  this  College  during  the  past  forty 
years.  At  present  the  Freshman  year  is  the  only 
one  in  which  there  is  a  fixed  course  prescribed  for 
all.  In  the  other  three  years,  more  than  half  the 
time  allotted  to  study  is  filled  with  subjects  chosen 
by  each  student  from  lists  which  comprise  six 
studies  in  the  Sophomore  year,  nine  in  the  Junior 
year,  and  eleven  in  the  Senior  year.  The  range  of 
elective  studies  is  large,  though  there  are  some 
striking  deficiencies.  The  liberty  of  choice  of  sub- 
ject is  wide,  but  yet  has  very  rigid  limits.  There 
is  a  certain  framework  which  must  be  filled ;  and 
about  half  the  material  of  the  filling  is  prescribed. 
The  choice  offered  to  the  student  does  not  lie  be- 
tween liberal  studies  and  professional  or  utilita- 
rian studies.  All  the  studies  which  are  open  to  him 
are  liberal  and  disciplinary,  not  narrow  or  special. 
Under  this  system  the  College  does  not  demand,  it 
is  true,  one  invariable  set  of  studies  of  every  can- 
didate for  the  first  degree  in  Arts ;  but  its  requisi- 
tions for  this  degree  are  nevertheless  high  and 

13 


Inaugural  Address 

inflexible,  being  nothing  less  than  four  years  de- 
voted to  liberal  culture. 

It  has  been  alleged  that  the  elective  system  must 
weaken  the  bond  which  unites  members  of  the 
same  class.  This  is  true;  but  in  view  of  another 
much  more  efficient  cause  of  the  diminution  of 
class  intimacy,  the  point  is  not  very  significant. 
The  increased  size  of  the  college  classes  inevitably 
works  a  great  change  in  this  respect.  One  hun- 
dred and  fifty  young  men  cannot  be  so  intimate 
with  each  other  as  fifty  used  to  be.  This  increase 
is  progressive.  Taken  in  connection  with  the  ris- 
ing average  age  of  the  students,  it  would  compel 
the  adoption  of  methods  of  instruction  different 
from  the  old,  if  there  were  no  better  motive  for 
such  change.  The  elective  system  fosters  scholar- 
ship, because  it  gives  free  play  to  natural  prefer- 
ences and  inborn  aptitudes,  makes  possible  enthu- 
siasm for  a  chosen  work,  relieves  the  professor  and 
the  ardent  disciple  of  the  presence  of  a  body  of 
students  who  are  compelled  to  an  unwelcome  task, 
and  enlarges  instruction  by  substituting  many  and 
various  lessons  given  to  small,  lively  classes,  for 
a  few  lessons  many  times  repeated  to  different 
sections  of  a  numerous  class.  The  College  there- 
fore proposes  to  persevere  in  its  efforts  to  establish, 
improve,  and  extend  the  elective  system.  Its  ad- 
ministrative difficulties,  which  seem  formidable  at 
first,  vanish  before  a  brief  experience. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  about  the  com- 
parative merits  of  lectures  and  recitations.    Both 

14 


As  President  of  Harvard  College 

are  useful —  lectures,  for  inspiration,  guidance,  and 
the  comprehensive  methodizing  which  only  one 
who  has  a  view  of  the  whole  field  can  rightly  con- 
trive; recitations,  for  securing  and  testifying  a 
thorough  mastery  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  of  the 
treatise  or  author  in  hand,  for  conversational  com- 
ment and  amplification,  for  emulation  and  compe- 
tition. Recitations  alone  readily  degenerate  into 
dusty  repetitions,  and  lectures  alone  are  too  often  a 
useless  expenditure  of  force.  The  lecturer  pumps 
laboriously  into  sieves.  The  water  may  be  whole- 
some, but  it  runs  through.  A  mind  must  work  to 
grow.  Just  as  far,  however,  as  the  student  can  be 
relied  on  to  master  and  appreciate  his  author  with- 
out the  aid  of  frequent  questioning  and  repetitions, 
so  far  is  it  possible  to  dispense  with  recitations. 
Accordingly,  in  the  later  College  years  there  is  a 
decided  tendency  to  diminish  the  number  of  reci- 
tations, the  faithfulness  of  the  student  being  tested 
by  periodical  examinations.  This  tendency  is  in 
a  right  direction,  if  prudently  controlled. 

The  discussion  about  lectures  and  recitations  has 
brought  out  some  strong  opinions  about  text-books 
and  their  use.  Impatience  with  text-books  and 
manuals  is  very  natural  in  both  teachers  and 
taught.  These  books  are  indeed,  for  the  most 
part,  very  imperfect,  and  stand  in  constant  need 
of  correction  by  the  well-informed  teacher.  Stere- 
otyping, in  its  present  undeveloped  condition,  is 
in  part  to  blame  for  their  most  exasperating  de- 
fects. To  make  the  metal  plates  keep  pace  with 
the  progress  of  learning  is  costly.    The  manifest 

15 


Inaugural  Address 

deficiencies  of  text-books  must  not,  however,  drive 
us  into  a  too  sweeping  condemnation  of  their  use. 
It  is  a  rare  teacher  who  is  superior  to  all  manuals 
in  his  subject.  Scientific  manuals  are,  as  a  rule, 
much  worse  than  those  upon  language,  literature, 
or  philosophy ;  yet  the  main  improvement  in  medi- 
cal education  in  this  country  during  the  last 
twenty  years  has  been  the  addition  of  systematic 
recitations  from  text-books  to  the  lectures  which 
were  formerly  the  principal  means  of  theoretical 
instruction.  The  training  of  a  medical  student, 
inadequate  as  it  is,  offers  the  best  example  we 
have  of  the  methods  and  fruits  of  an  education 
mainly  scientific.  The  transformation  which  the 
average  student  of  a  good  medical  school  under- 
goes in  three  years  is  strong  testimony  to  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  training  he  receives. 

There  are  certain  common  misapprehensions 
about  colleges  in  general,  and  this  College  in  par- 
ticular, to  which  I  wish  to  devote  a  few  moments' 
attention.  And,  first,  in  spite  of  the  familiar  pic- 
ture of  the  moral  dangers  which  environ  the  stu- 
dent, there  is  no  place  so  safe  as  a  good  college 
during  the  critical  passage  from  boyhood  to  man- 
hood. The  security  of  the  college  commonwealth 
is  largely  due  to  its  exuberant  activity.  Its 
public  opinion,  though  easily  led  astray,  is  still 
high  in  the  main.  Its  scholarly  tastes  and  habits, 
its  eager  friendships  and  quick  hatreds,  its  keen 
debates,  its  frank  discussions  of  character  and  of 
deep   political  and  religious   questions,    all    are 

i6 


y4s  President  of  Harvard  College 

safeguards  against  sloth,  vulgarity,  and  depravity. 
Its  society  and,  not  less,  its  solitudes  are  full  of 
teaching.  Shams,  conceit,  and  fictitious  distinc- 
tions get  no  mercy.  There  is  nothing  but  ridicule 
for  bombast  and  sentimentality.  Eepression  of 
genuine  sentiment  and  emotion  is  indeed,  in  this 
College,  carried  too  far.  Eeserve  is  more  respec- 
table than  any  undiscerning  communicativeness; 
but  neither  Yankee  shamefacedness  nor  English 
stolidity  is  admirable.  This  point  especially 
touches  you,  young  men,  who  are  still  undergrad- 
uates. When  you  feel  a  true  admiration  for  a 
teacher,  a  glow  of  enthusiasm  for  work,  a  thrill 
of  pleasure  at  some  excellent  saying,  give  it  ex- 
pression. Do  not  be  ashamed  of  these  emotions. 
Cherish  the  natural  sentiment  of  personal  devotion 
to  the  teacher  who  calls  out  your  better  powers. 
It  is  a  great  delight  to  serve  an  intellectual  master. 
We  Americans  are  but  too  apt  to  lose  this  happi- 
ness. German  and  French  students  get  it.  If 
ever  in  after  years  you  come  to  smile  at  the  youth- 
ful reverence  you  paid,  believe  me,  it  will  be  with 
tears  in  your  eyes. 

Many  excellent  persons  see  great  offense  in  any 
system  of  college  rank ;  but  why  should  we  expect 
more  of  young  men  than  we  do  of  their  elders  I 
How  many  men  and  women  perform  their  daily 
tasks  from  the  highest  motives  alone  —  for  the 
glory  of  God  and  the  relief  of  man^s  estate  ?  Most 
people  work  for  bare  bread,  a  few  for  cake.  The 
college  rank-list  reinforces  higher  motives.  In  the 
campaign  for  character,  no  auxiliaries  are  to  be 

17 


Inaugural  Address 

refused.  Next  to  despising  the  enemy,  it  is  danger- 
ous to  reject  allies.  To  devise  a  suitable  method 
of  estimating  the  fidelity  and  attainments  of  col- 
lege students  is,  however,  a  problem  which  has 
long  been  under  discussion,  and  has  not  yet  re- 
ceived a  satisfactory  solution.  The  worst  of  rank 
as  a  stimulus  is  the  self -reference  it  implies  in  the 
aspirants.  The  less  a  young  man  thinks  about  the 
cultivation  of  his  mind,  about  his  own  mental 
progress, —  about  himself,  in  short, —  the  better. 

The  petty  discipline  of  colleges  attracts  altogether 
too  much  attention  from  both  friends  and  foes. 
It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  rules  concerning 
decorum,  however  necessary  to  maintain  the  high 
standard  of  manners  and  conduct  which  character- 
izes this  College,  are  nevertheless  justly  described 
as  petty.  What  is  technically  called  a  quiet  term 
cannot  be  accepted  as  the  acme  of  university  suc- 
cess. This  success  is  not  to  be  measured  by  the 
frequency  or  rarity  of  college  punishments.  The 
criteria  of  success  or  failure  in  a  high  place  of 
learning  are  not  the  boyish  escapades  of  an  insig- 
nificant minority,  nor  the  exceptional  cases  of  ruin- 
ous vice.  Each  year  must  be  judged  by  the  added 
opportunities  of  instruction,  by  the  prevailing  en- 
thusiasm in  learning,  and  by  the  gathered  wealth 
of  culture  and  character.  The  best  way  to  put 
boyishness  to  shame  is  to  foster  scholarship  and 
manliness.  The  manners  of  a  community  cannot 
be  improved  by  main  force  any  more  than  its  mor- 
als. The  Statutes  of  the  University  need  some 
amendment   and  reduction   in   the  chapters   on 

i8 


y^5  President  of  Harvard  College 

crimes  and  misdemeanors.  But  let  us  render  to 
our  fathers  the  justice  we  shall  need  from  our  sons. 
What  is  too  minute  or  precise  for  our  use  was 
doubtless  wise  and  proper  in  its  day.  It  was  to  in- 
culcate a  reverent  bearing  and  due  consideration 
for  things  sacred  that  the  regulations  prescribed  a 
black  dress  on  Sunday.  Black  is  not  the  only  de- 
corous wear  in  these  days ;  but  we  must  not  seem, 
in  ceasing  from  this  particular  mode  of  good  man- 
ners, to  think  less  of  the  gentle  breeding  of  which 
only  the  outward  signs,  and  not  the  substance, 
have  been  changed. 

Hakvakd  College  has  always  attracted  and  still 
attracts  students  in  all  conditions  of  life.  From 
the  city  trader  or  professional  man,  who  may  be 
careless  how  much  his  son  spends  at  Cambridge, 
to  the  farmer  or  mechanic,  who  finds  it  a  hard  sac- 
rifice to  give  his  boy  his  time  early  enough  to  enable 
him  to  prepare  for  college,  all  sorts  and  conditions 
of  men  have  wished  and  still  wish  to  send  their 
sons  hither.  There  are  always  scores  of  young 
men  in  this  University  who  earn  or  borrow  every 
dollar  they  spend  here.  Every  year  many  young 
men  enter  this  College  without  any  resources 
whatever.  If  they  prove  themselves  men  of 
capacity  and  character,  they  never  go  away  for 
lack  of  money.  More  than  twenty  thousand  dol- 
lars a  year  is  now  devoted  to  aiding  students  of 
narrow  means  to  compass  their  education,  besides 
all  the  remitted  fees  and  the  numerous  private 
benefactions.    These  latter  are  unfailing.    Taken 

19 


Inaugural  Address 

in  connection  with  the  proceeds  of  the  funds  ap- 
plicable to  the  aid  of  poor  students,  they  enable 
the  Corporation  to  say  that  no  good  student  need 
ever  stay  away  from  Cambridge  or  leave  college 
simply  because  he  is  poor.  There  is  one  uniform 
condition,  however,  on  which  help  is  given:  the 
recipient  must  be  of  promising  ability  and  the  best 
character.  The  community  does  not  owe  superior 
education  to  all  children,  but  only  to  the  elite  —  to 
those  who,  having  the  capacity,  prove  by  hard 
work  that  they  have  also  the  necessary  persever- 
ance and  endurance.  The  process  of  preparing  to 
enter  college  under  the  difficulties  which  poverty 
entails  is  just  such  a  test  of  worthiness  as  is  needed. 
At  this  moment  there  is  no  college  in  the  country 
more  eligible  for  a  poor  student  than  Harvard 
on  the  mere  ground  of  economy.  The  scholarship 
funds  are  mainly  the  fruit  of  the  last  fifteen  years. 
The  future  will  take  care  of  itself ;  for  it  is  to  be 
expected  that  the  men  who  in  this  generation  have 
had  the  benefit  of  these  funds,  and  who  succeed  in 
after  life,  will  pay  manyfold  to  their  successors  in 
need  the  debt  which  they  owe,  not  to  the  College, 
but  to  benefactors  whom  they  cannot  even  thank, 
save  in  heaven.  No  wonder  that  scholarships  are 
founded.  What  greater  privilege  than  this  of  giv- 
ing young  men  of  promise  the  coveted  means  of 
intellectual  growth  and  freedom?  The  angels  of 
heaven  might  envy  mortals  so  fine  a  luxury.  The 
happiness  which  the  winning  of  a  scholarship  gives 
is  not  the  recipient's  alone :  it  flashes  back  to  the 
home  whence  he  came,  and  gladdens  anxious  hearts 

20 


As  President  of  Harvard  College 

there.  The  good  which  it  does  is  not  his  alone,  but 
descends,  multiplying  at  every  step,  through  gener- 
ations. Thanks  to  the  beneficent  mysteries  of 
hereditary  transmission,  no  capital  earns  such  inter- 
est as  personal  culture.  The  poorest  and  the  richest 
students  are  equally  welcome  here,  provided  that 
with  their  poverty  or  their  wealth  they  bring  capa- 
city, ambition,  and  purity.  The  poverty  of  scholars 
is  of  inestimable  worth  in  this  money-getting  na- 
tion. It  maintains  the  true  standards  of  virtue  and 
honor.  The  poor  friars,  not  the  bishops,  saved  the 
church.  The  poor  scholars  and  preachers  of  duty 
defend  the  modern  community  against  its  own 
material  prosperity.  Luxury  and  learning  are  ill 
bedfellows.  Nevertheless,  this  College  owes  much 
of  its  distinctive  character  to  those  who,  bringing 
hither  from  refined  homes  good  breeding,  gentle 
tastes,  and  a  manly  delicacy,  add  to  them  openness 
and  activity  of  mind,  intellectual  interests,  and  a 
sense  of  public  duty.  It  is  as  high  a  privilege  for 
a  rich  man's  son  as  for  a  poor  man's  to  resort  to 
these  academic  halls,  and  so  to  take  his  proper 
place  among  cultivated  and  intellectual  men.  To 
lose  altogether  the  presence  of  those  who  in  early 
life  have  enjoyed  the  domestic  and  social  advan- 
tages of  wealth  would  be  as  great  a  blow  to  the  Col- 
lege as  to  lose  the  sons  of  the  poor.  The  interests 
of  the  College  and  the  country  are  identical  in  this 
regard.  The  country  suffers  when  the  rich  are 
ignorant  and  unrefined.  Inherited  wealth  is  an 
unmitigated  curse  when  divorced  from  culture. 
Harvard  College  is  sometimes   reproached  with 

2*  21 


Inaugural  Address 

being  aristocratic.  If  by  aristocracy  be  meant  a 
stupid  and  pretentious  caste,  founded  on  wealth, 
and  birth,  and  an  affectation  of  European  manners, 
no  charge  could  be  more  preposterous :  the  College 
is  intensely  American  in  affection,  and  intensely 
democratic  in  temper.  But  there  is  an  aristocracy 
to  which  the  sons  of  Harvard  have  belonged,  and, 
let  us  hope,  will  ever  aspire  to  belong  —  the  aris- 
tocracy which  excels  in  manly  sports,  carries  off 
the  honors  and  prizes  of  the  learned  professions, 
and  bears  itself  with  distinction  in  all  fields  of  in- 
tellectual labor  and  combat ;  the  aristocracy  which 
in  peace  stands  firmest  for  the  public  honor  and 
renown,  and  in  war  rides  first  into  the  murderous 
thickets. 

The  attitude  of  the  University  in  the  prevailing 
discussions  touching  the  education  and  fit  em- 
ployments of  women  demands  brief  explanation. 
America  is  the  natural  arena  for  these  debates; 
for  here  the  female  sex  has  a  better  past  and  a 
better  present  than  elsewhere.  Americans,  as  a 
rule,  hate  disabilities  of  all  sorts,  whether  religious, 
political,  or  social.  Equality  between  the  sexes, 
without  privilege  or  oppression  on  either  side,  is 
the  happy  custom  of  American  homes.  While 
this  great  discussion  is  gomg  on,  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  University  to  maintain  a  cautious  and  ex- 
pectant policy.  The  Corporation  will  not  receive 
women  as  students  into  the  College  proper,  nor 
into  any  school  whose  discipline  requires  residence 
near  the  school.    The  difficulties  involved  in  a 

22 


As  President  of  Harvard  College 

common  residence  of  hundreds  of  young  men  and 
women  of  immature  character  and  marriageable 
age  are  very  grave.  The  necessary  police  regula- 
tions are  exceedingly  burdensome.  The  Corpora- 
tion are  not  influenced  to  this  decision,  however, 
by  any  crude  notions  about  the  innate  capacities 
of  women.  The  world  knows  next  to  nothing 
about  the  natural  mental  capacities  of  the  female 
sex.  Only  after  generations  of  civil  freedom  and 
social  equality  will  it  be  possible  to  obtain  the 
data  necessary  for  an  adequate  discussion  of 
woman's  natural  tendencies,  tastes,  and  capabili- 
ties. Again,  the  Corporation  do  not  find  it  neces- 
sary to  entertain  a  confident  opinion  upon  the 
fitness  or  unfitness  of  women  for  professional 
pursuits.  It  is  not  the  business  of  the  University 
to  decide  this  mooted  point.  In  this  country  the 
University  does  not  undertake  to  protect  the  com- 
munity against  incompetent  lawyers,  ministers,  or 
doctors.  The  community  must  protect  itself  by 
refusing  to  employ  such.  Practical,  not  theoreti- 
cal, considerations  determine  the  policy  of  the 
University.  Upon  a  matter  concerning  which 
prejudices  are  deep,  and  opinion  inflammable,  and 
experience  scanty,  only  one  course  is  prudent  or 
justifiable  when  such  great  interests  are  at  stake  — 
that  of  cautious  and  well-considered  experiment. 
The  practical  problem  is  to  devise  a  safe,  promis- 
ing, and  instructive  experiment.  Such  an  experi- 
ment the  Corporation  have  meant  to  try  in  open- 
ing the  newly  established  University  Courses  of 
Instruction  to  competent  women.  In  these  courses 

23 


Inaugural  Address 

the  University  offers  to  young  women  who  have 
been  to  good  schools  as  many  years  as  they  wish 
of  liberal  culture  in  studies  which  have  no  direct 
professional  value,  to  be  sure,  but  which  enrich 
and  enlarge  both  intellect  and  character.  The 
University  hopes  thus  to  contribute  to  the  intellec- 
tual emancipation  of  women.  It  hopes  to  prepare 
some  women  better  than  they  would  otherwise 
have  been  prepared  for  the  profession  of  teaching, 
the  one  learned  profession  to  which  women  have 
already  acquired  a  clear  title.  It  hopes  that  the 
proffer  of  this  higher  instruction  will  have  some 
reflex  influence  upon  schools  for  girls  —  to  dis- 
courage superficiality,  and  to  promote  substantial 
education. 

The  governing  bodies  of  the  University  are  the 
Faculties,  the  Board  of  Overseers,  and  the  Cor- 
poration. The  University  as  a  place  of  study 
and  instruction  is,  at  any  moment,  what  the 
Faculties  make  it.  The  professors,  lecturers,  and 
tutors  of  the  University  are  the  living  sources  of 
learning  and  enthusiasm.  They  personally  repre- 
sent the  possibilities  of  instruction.  They  are 
united  in  several  distinct  bodies,  the  academic  and 
professional  Faculties,  each  of  which  practically 
determines  its  own  processes  and  rules.  The  dis- 
cussion of  methods  of  instruction  is  the  principal 
business  of  these  bodies.  As  a  fact,  progress 
comes  mainly  from  the  Faculties.  This  has  been 
conspicuously  the  case  with  the  Academic  and 
Medical  Faculties  during  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty 

24 


As  President  of  Harvard  College 

years.  The  undergraduates  used  to  have  a  notion 
that  the  time  of  the  Academic  Faculty  was  mainly 
devoted  to  petty  discipline.  Nothing  could  be 
further  from  the  truth.  The  Academic  Faculty  is 
the  most  active,  vigilant,  and  devoted  body  con- 
nected with  the  University.  It  indeed  is  con- 
stantly obliged  to  discuss  minute  details,  which 
might  appear  trivial  to  an  inexperienced  observer. 
But,  in  education,  technical  details  tell.  Whether 
German  be  studied  by  the  Juniors  once  a  week  as 
an  extra  study,  or  twice  a  week  as  an  elective, 
seems,  perhaps,  an  unimportant  matter;  but, 
twenty  years  hence,  it  makes  all  the  difference 
between  a  generation  of  Alumni  who  know  G-er- 
man  and  a  generation  who  do  not.  The  Faculty 
renews  its  youth,  through  the  frequent  appoint- 
ments of  tutors  and  assistant  professors,  better 
and  oftener  than  any  other  organization  within 
the  University.  Two  kinds  of  men  make  good 
teachers — young  men  and  men  who  never  grow 
old.  The  incessant  discussions  of  the  Academic 
Faculty  have  borne  much  fruit :  witness  the  trans- 
formation of  the  University  since  the  beginning 
of  President  Walker's  administration.  And  it 
never  tires.  New  men  take  up  the  old  debates, 
and  one  year's  progi-ess  is  not  less  than  another's. 
The  divisions  within  the  Faculty  are  never  be- 
tween the  old  and  the  young  officers.  There  are 
always  old  radicals  and  young  conservatives. 

The  Medical  Faculty  affords  another  illustration 
of  the  same  principle  —  that  for  real  university 
progress  we  must  look  principally  to  the  teaching 

25 


Inaugural  Address 

bodies.  The  Medical  School  to-day  is  almost 
three  times  as  strong  as  it  was  fifteen  years  ago. 
Its  teaching  power  is  greatly  increased,  and  its 
methods  have  been  much  improved.  This  gain 
is  the  work  of  the  Faculty  of  the  School. 

If  then  the  Faculties  be  so  important,  it  is  a  vital 
question  how  the  quality  of  these  bodies  can  be 
maintained  and  improved.  It  is  very  hard  to  find 
competent  professors  for  the  University.  Very 
few  Americans  of  eminent  ability  are  attracted  to 
this  profession.  The  pay  has  been  too  low,  and 
there  has  been  no  gradual  rise  out  of  drudgery, 
such  as  may  reasonably  be  expected  in  other 
learned  callings.  The  law  of  supply  and  demand, 
or  the  commercial  principle  that  the  quality  as 
well  as  the  price  of  goods  is  best  regulated  by  the 
natural  contest  between  producers  and  consumers, 
never  has  worked  well  in  the  province  of  high 
education.  And  in  spite  of  the  high  standing  of 
some  of  its  advocates,  it  is  well-nigh  certain  that 
the  so-called  law  never  can  work  well  in  such  a 
field.  The  reason  is  that  the  demand  for  instruc- 
tors of  the  highest  class  on  the  part  of  parents  and 
trustees  is  an  ignorant  demand,  and  the  supply  of 
highly  educated  teachers  is  so  limited  that  the  con- 
sumer has  not  sufficient  opportunities  of  informing 
himself  concerning  the  real  qualities  of  the  article 
he  seeks.  Originally  a  bad  judge,  he  remains  a  bad 
judge,  because  the  supply  is  not  sufficiently  abun- 
dant and  various  to  instruct  him.  Moreover,  a 
need  is  not  necessarily  a  demand.  Everybody 
knows  that  the  supposed  law  affords  a  very  imper- 

26 


y^s  President  of  Harvard  College 

feet  protection  against  short  weight,  adulteration, 
and  sham,  even  in  the  case  of  those  commodities 
which  are  most  abundant  in  the  market  and  most 
familiar  to  buyers.  The  most  intelligent  commu- 
nity is  defenseless  enough  in  buying  clothes  and 
groceries.  When  it  comes  to  hiring  learning  and 
inspiration  and  personal  weight,  the  law  of  supply 
and  demand  breaks  down  altogether.  A  university 
cannot  be  managed  like  a  railroad  or  a  cotton- 
mill. 

There  are,  however,  two  practicable  improve- 
ments in  the  position  of  college  professors  which 
will  be  of  very  good  effect.  Their  regular  stipend 
must  and  will  be  increased,  and  the  repetitions 
which  now  harass  them  must  be  diminished  in 
number.  It  is  a  strong  point  of  the  elective  sys- 
tem that,  by  reducing  the  size  of  classes  or  divi- 
sions, and  increasing  the  variety  of  subjects,  it 
makes  the  professors'  labors  more  agreeable. 

Experience  teaches  that  the  strongest  and  most 
devoted  professors  will  contribute  something  to 
the  patrimony  of  knowledge ;  or  if  they  invent  lit- 
tle themselves,  they  wiU  do  something  toward  de- 
fending, interpreting,  or  diffusing  the  contributions 
of  others.  Nevertheless,  the  prime  business  of 
American  professors  in  this  generation  must  be 
regular  and  assiduous  class  teaching.  With  the 
exception  of  the  endowments  of  the  Observatory, 
the  University  does  not  hold  a  single  fund  pri- 
marily intended  to  secure  to  men  of  learning 
the  leisure  and  means  to  prosecute  original  re- 
searches. 

27 


Inaugural  Address 

The  organization  and  functions  of  the  Board  of 
Overseers  deserve  the  serious  attention  of  all  men 
who  are  interested  in  the  American  method  of  pro- 
viding the  community  with  high  education  through 
the  agency  of  private  corporations.  Since  1866  the 
Overseers  have  been  elected  by  the  Alumni.  Five 
men  are  chosen  each  year  to  serve  six  years.  The 
body  has,  therefore,  a  large  and  very  intelligent  con- 
stituency, and  is  rapidly  renewed.  The  ingenious 
method  of  nominating  to  the  electors  twice  as  many 
candidates  as  there  are  places  to  be  filled  in  any  year 
is  worthy  of  careful  study  as  a  device  of  possible 
application  in  politics.  The  real  function  of  the 
Board  of  Overseers  is  to  stimulate  and  watch  the 
President  and  Fellows.  Without  the  Overseers, 
the  President  and  Fellows  would  be  a  board  of 
private  trustees,  self-perpetuated  and  self-con- 
trolled. Provided  as  it  is  with  two  governing 
boards,  the  University  enjoys  that  principal  safe- 
guard of  all  American  governments  —  the  natural 
antagonism  between  two  bodies  of  different  con- 
stitution, powers,  and  privileges.  While  having 
with  the  Corporation  a  common  interest  of  the 
deepest  kind  in  the  welfare  of  the  University  and 
the  advancement  of  learning,  the  Overseers  should 
always  hold  toward  the  Corporation  an  attitude  of 
suspicious  vigilance.  They  ought  always  to  be 
pushing  and  prying.  It  would  be  hard  to  over- 
state the  importance  of  the  public  supervision  ex- 
ercised by  the  Board  of  Overseers.  Experience 
proves  that  our  main  hope  for  the  permanence 
and  ever-widening  usefulness  of  the  University 

28 


As  President  of  Harvard  College 

must  rest  upon  this  double-headed  organization. 
The  English  practice  of  setting  up  a  single  body 
of  private  trustees  to  carry  on  a  school  or  charity 
according  to  the  personal  instructions  of  some 
founder  or  founders  has  certainly  proved  a  lamen- 
tably bad  one ;  and  when  we  count  by  generations, 
the  institutions  thus  established  have  proved  short- 
lived. The  same  causes  which  have  brought  about 
the  decline  of  English  endowed  schools  would 
threaten  the  life  of  this  University  were  it  not  for 
the  existence  of  the  Board  of  Overseers.  These 
schools  were  generally  managed  by  close  corpora- 
tions, self-elected,  self-controlled,  without  motive 
for  activity,  and  destitute  of  external  stimulus  and 
aid.  Such  bodies  are  too  irresponsible  for  human 
nature.  At  the  time  of  life  at  which  men  gener- 
ally come  to  such  places  of  trust,  rest  is  sweet,  and 
the  easiest  way  is  apt  to  seem  the  best  way ;  and 
the  responsibility  of  inaction,  though  really  heavier, 
seems  lighter  than  the  responsibility  of  action. 
These  corporations  were  often  hampered  by  foun- 
ders' wills  and  statutory  provisions  which  could 
not  be  executed,  and  yet  stood  in  the  way  of  or- 
ganic improvements.  There  was  no  systematic 
provision  for  thorough  inspections  and  public  re- 
ports thereupon.  We  cannot  flatter  ourselves  that 
under  like  circumstances  we  should  always  be 
secure  against  like  dangers.  Provoked  by  crying 
abuses,  some  of  the  best  friends  of  education  in 
England  have  gone  the  length  of  maintaining  that 
all  these  school  endowments  ought  to  be  destroyed, 
and  the  future  creation  of  such  trusts  rendered 

29 


Inaugural  Address 

impossible.  French  law  practically  prohibits  the 
creation  of  such  trusts  by  private  persons. 

Incident  to  the  Overseers'  power  of  inspecting 
the  University  and  publicly  reporting  upon  its 
condition,  is  the  important  function  of  suggesting 
and  urging  improvements.  The  inertia  of  a  mas- 
sive University  is  formidable.  A  good  past  is 
positively  dangerous,  if  it  make  us  content  with 
the  present,  and  so  unprepared  for  the  future.  The 
present  constitution  of  our  Board  of  Overseers  has 
already  stimulated  the  Alumni  of  several  other  New 
England  colleges  to  demand  a  similar  control  over 
the  property-holding  board  of  trustees  which  has 
heretofore  been  the  single  source  of  all  authority. 

We  come  now  to  the  heart  of  the  University  — 
the  Corporation.  This  board  holds  the  funds, 
makes  appointments,  fixes  salaries,  and  has,  by 
right,  the  initiative  in  all  changes  of  the  organic 
law  of  the  University.  Such  an  executive  board 
must  be  small  to  be  efficient.  It  must  always 
contain  men  of  sound  judgment  in  finance ;  and  lit- 
erature and  the  learned  professions  should  be  ade- 
quately represented  in  it.  The  Corporation  should 
also  be  but  slowly  renewed ;  for  it  is  of  the  utmost 
consequence  to  the  University  that  the  Govern- 
ment should  have  a  steady  aim,  and  a  prevailing 
spirit  which  is  independent  of  individuals  and 
transmissible  from  generation  to  generation.  And 
what  should  this  spirit  be?  First,  it  should  be 
a  catholic  spirit.  A  university  must  be  indige- 
nous J  it  must  be  rich  j  but,  above  all,  it  must  be 

30 


As  President  of  Harvard  College 

free.  The  winnowing  breeze  of  freedom  must 
blow  through  all  its  chambers.  It  takes  a  hurri- 
cane to  blow  wheat  away.  An  atmosphere  of  in- 
tellectual freedom  is  the  native  air  of  literature 
and  science.  This  University  aspires  to  serve  the 
nation  by  training  men  to  intellectual  honesty  and 
independence  of  mind.  The  Corporation  demands 
of  all  its  teachers  that  they  be  grave,  reverent,  and 
high-minded ;  but  it  leaves  them,  like  their  pupils, 
free.  A  university  is  built,  not  by  a  sect,  but  by 
a  nation. 

Secondly,  the  actuating  spirit  of  the  Corporation 
must  be  a  spirit  of  fidelity  —  fidelity  to  the  many 
and  various  trusts  reposed  in  them  by  the  hun- 
dreds of  persons  who,  out  of  their  penury  or  their 
abundance,  have  given  money  to  the  President  and 
Fellows  of  Harvard  College  in  the  beautiful  hope 
of  doing  some  perpetual  good  upon  this  earth. 
The  Corporation  has  constantly  done  its  utmost  to 
make  this  hope  a  living  fact.  One  hundred  and 
ninety-nine  years  ago,  William  Pennoyer  gave  the 
rents  of  certain  estates  in  the  county  of  Norfolk, 
England,  that "  two  fellows  and  two  scholars  forever 
should  be  educated,  brought  up,  and  maintained " 
in  this  College.  The  income  from  this  bequest  has 
never  failed ;  and  to-day  one  of  the  four  Pennoyer 
scholarships  is  held  by  a  lineal  descendant  of 
William  Pennoyer's  brother  Robert.  So  a  lineal 
descendant  of  Governor  Danforth  takes  this  year 
the  income  of  the  property  which  Danforth  be- 
queathed to  the  College  in  1699.  The  Corporation 
have  been  as  faithful  in  the  greater  things  as  in  the 

31 


Inaugural  Address 

less.  They  have  been  greatly  blessed  in  one  re- 
spect: in  the  whole  life  of  the  Corporation,  seven 
generations  of  men,  nothing  has  ever  been  lost  by 
malfeasance  of  officers  or  servants.  A  reputation 
for  scrupulous  fidelity  to  all  trusts  is  the  most 
precious  possession  of  the  Corporation.  That  safe, 
the  College  might  lose  everything  else  and  yet 
survive ;  that  lost  beyond  repair,  and  the  days  of 
the  College  would  be  numbered.  Testators  look 
first  to  the  trustworthiness  and  permanence  of  the 
body  which  is  to  dispense  their  benefactions.  The 
Corporation  thankfully  receive  all  gifts  which  may 
advance  learning;  but  they  believe  that  the  in- 
terests of  the  University  may  be  most  effectually 
promoted  by  not  restricting  too  narrowly  the  use 
to  which  a  gift  may  be  applied.  Whenever  the 
giver  desires  it,  the  Corporation  will  agree  to  keep 
any  fund  separately  invested  under  the  name  of 
the  giver,  and  to  apply  the  whole  proceeds  of  such 
investment  to  any  object  the  giver  may  designate. 
By  such  special  investment,  however,  the  insur- 
ance which  results  from  the  absorption  of  a  spe- 
cific gift  in  the  general  funds  is  lost.  A  fund 
invested  by  itself  may  be  impaired  or  lost  by  a 
single  error  of  judgment  in  investing.  The  chance 
of  such  loss  is  small  in  any  one  generation,  but 
appreciable  in  centuries.  Such  general  designa- 
tions as  salaries,  books,  dormitories,  public  build- 
ings, scholarships  graduate  or  undergraduate, 
scientific  collections,  and  expenses  of  experimental 
laboratories,  are  of  permanent  significance  and 
effect;  while  experience  proves  that  too  specific 

32 


As  President  of  Harvard  College 

and  minute  directions  concerning  the  application 
of  funds  must  often  fail  of  fulfilment,  simply  in 
consequence  of  the  changing  needs  and  habits  of 
successive  generations. 

Again,  the  Corporation  should  always  be  filled 
with  the  spirit  of  enterprise.  An  institution  like 
this  College  is  getting  decrepit  when  it  sits  down 
contentedly  on  its  mortgages.  On  its  invested 
funds  the  Corporation  should  be  always  seeking 
how  safely  to  make  a  quarter  of  a  per  cent.  more. 
A  quarter  of  one  per  cent,  means  a  new  professor- 
ship. It  should  be  always  pushing  after  more 
professorships,  better  professors,  more  land  and 
buildings,  and  better  apparatus.  It  should  be 
eager,  sleepless,  and  untiring,  never  wasting  a 
moment  in  counting  laurels  won,  ever  prompt  to 
welcome  and  apply  the  liberality  of  the  com- 
munity, and  liking  no  prospect  so  well  as  that  of 
difficulties  to  be  overcome  and  labors  to  be  done 
in  the  cause  of  learning  and  public  virtue. 

You  recognize,  gentlemen,  the  picture  which  I 
have  drawn  in  thus  delineating  the  true  spirit  of 
the  Corporation  of  this  College.  I  have  described 
the  noble  quintessence  of  the  New  England  char- 
acter—  that  character  which  has  made  us  a  free 
and  enlightened  people;  that  character  which, 
please  God,  shall  yet  do  a  great  work  in  the  world 
for  the  lifting  up  of  humanity. 

Apart  from  the  responsibility  which  rests  upon 
the  Corporation,  its  actual  labors  are  far  heavier 
than  the  community  imagines.  The  business  of 
the  University  has  greatly  increased  in  volume 

33 


Inaugural  Address 

and  complexity  during  the  past  twenty  years,  and 
the  drafts  made  upon  the  time  and  thought 
of  every  member  of  the  Corporation  are  heavy 
indeed.  The  high  honors  of  the  function  are  in 
these  days  most  generously  earned. 

The  President  of  the  University  is  primarily  an 
executive  officer;  but,  being  a  member  of  both 
governing  boards  and  of  all  the  faculties,  he  has 
also  the  influence  in  their  debates  to  which  his 
more  or  less  perfect  intimacy  with  the  University 
and  greater  or  less  personal  weight  may  happen  to 
entitle  him.  An  administrative  officer  who  under- 
takes to  do  everything  himself  will  do  but  little, 
and  that  little  ill.  The  President's  first  duty  is 
that  of  supervision.  He  should  know  what  each 
officer's  and  servant's  work  is,  and  how  it  is  done. 
But  the  days  are  past  in  which  the  President 
could  be  called  on  to  decide  everything  from  the 
purchase  of  a  door-mat  to  the  appointment  of  a 
professor.  The  principle  of  divided  and  subor- 
dinate responsibilities,  which  rules  in  government 
bureaus,  in  manufactories,  and  all  great  com- 
panies, which  makes  a  modern  army  a  possibility, 
must  be  applied  in  the  University.  The  President 
should  be  able  to  discern  the  practical  essence 
of  complicated  and  long-drawn  discussions.  He 
must  often  pick  out  that  promising  part  of  theory 
which  ought  to  be  tested  by  experiment,  and  must 
decide  how  many  of  things  desirable  are  also 
attainable,  and  what  one  of  many  projects  is  ripest 
for  execution.    He  must  watch  and  look  before  — 

34 


As  President  of  Harvard  College 

watch,  to  seize  opportunities  to  get  money,  to 
secure  eminent  teachers  and  scholars,  and  to  in- 
fluence public  opinion  toward  the  advancement  of 
learning;  and  look  before,  to  anticipate  the  due 
effect  on  the  University  of  the  fluctuations  of  pub- 
lic opinion  on  educational  problems;  of  the  prog- 
ress of  the  institutions  which  feed  the  Univer- 
sity ;  of  the  changing  condition  of  the  professions 
which  the  University  supplies ;  of  the  rise  of  new 
professions ;  of  the  gradual  alteration  of  social  and 
religious  habits  in  the  community.  The  Univer- 
sity must  accommodate  itself  promptly  to  signifi- 
cant changes  in  the  character  of  the  people  for 
whom  it  exists.  The  institutions  of  higher  education 
in  any  nation  are  always  a  faithful  mirror  in  which 
are  sharply  reflected  the  national  history  and  char- 
acter. In  this  mobile  nation  the  action  and  re- 
action between  the  University  and  society  at  large 
are  more  sensitive  and  rapid  than  in  stiffer  com- 
munities. The  President,  therefore,  must  not  need 
to  see  a  house  built  before  he  can  comprehend  the 
plan  of  it.  He  can  profit  by  a  wide  intercourse 
with  all  sorts  of  men,  and  by  every  real  discussion 
on  education,  legislation,  and  sociology. 

The  most  important  function  of  the  President 
is  that  of  advising  the  Corporation  concerning 
appointments,  particularly  about  appointments  of 
young  men  who  have  not  had  time  and  opportu- 
nity to  approve  themselves  to  the  public.  It  is  in 
discharging  this  duty  that  the  President  holds  the 
future  of  the  University  in  his  hands.  He  cannot 
do  it  well  unless  he  have  insight,  unless  he  be  able 

35 


Inaugural  Address 

to  recognize,  at  times  beneath  some  crusts,  the 
real  gentleman  and  the  natural  teacher.  This  is 
the  one  oppressive  responsibility  of  the  President : 
all  other  cares  are  light  beside  it.  To  see  every 
day  the  evil  fruit  of  a  bad  appointment  must  be 
the  crudest  of  official  torments.  Fortunately,  the 
good  effect  of  a  judicious  appointment  is  also 
inestimable ;  and  here,  as  everywhere,  good  is  more 
penetrating  and  diffusive  than  evil. 

It  is  imperative  that  the  statutes  which  define  the 
President's  duties  should  be  recast,  and  the  customs 
of  the  College  be  somewhat  modified,  in  order  that 
lesser  duties  may  not  crowd  out  the  greater.  But, 
however  important  the  functions  of  the  President, 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  he  is  emphatically  a 
constitutional  executive.  It  is  his  character  and 
his  judgment  which  are  of  importance,  not  his 
opinions.  He  is  the  executive  officer  of  delibera- 
tive bodies,  in  which  decisions  are  reached  after 
discussion  by  a  majority  vote.  Those  decisions 
bind  him.  He  cannot  force  his  own  opinions  upon 
anybody.  A  university  is  the  last  place  in  the 
world  for  a  dictator.  Learning  is  always  republi- 
can.   It  has  idols,  but  not  masters. 

What  can  the  community  do  for  the  University  ? 
It  can  love,  honor,  and  cherish  it.  Love  it  and 
honor  it.  The  University  is  upheld  by  this  public 
affection  and  respect.  In  the  loyalty  of  her  chil- 
dren she  finds  strength  and  courage.  The  Corpo- 
ration, the  Overseers,  and  the  several  faculties 
need  to  feel  that  the  leaders  of  public  opinion,  and 

36 


^s  President  of  Harvard  College 

especially  the  sons  of  the  College,  are  at  their 
back,  always  ready  to  give  them  a  generous  and 
intelligent  support.  Therefore  we  welcome  the 
Chief  Magistrate  of  the  Commonwealth,  the  Sena- 
tors, Judges,  and  other  dignitaries  of  the  State, 
who  by  their  presence  at  this  ancient  ceremonial 
bear  witness  to  the  pride  which  Massachusetts 
feels  in  her  eldest  university.  Therefore  we  re- 
joice in  the  presence  of  this  throng  of  the  Alumni, 
testifying  their  devotion  to  the  College  which, 
through  all  changes,  is  still  their  home.  Cherish 
it.  This  University,  though  rich  among  American 
colleges,  is  very  poor  in  comparison  with  the  great 
universities  of  Europe.  The  wants  of  the  Ameri- 
can community  have  far  outgrown  the  capacity  of 
the  University  to  supply  them.  We  must  try  to 
satisfy  the  cravings  of  the  select  few  as  well  as 
the  needs  of  the  average  many.  We  cannot  afford 
to  neglect  the  Fine  Arts.  We  need  groves  and 
meadows  as  well  as  barracks  ;  and  soon  there  will 
be  no  chance  to  get  them  in  this  expanding  city. 
But,  above  all,  we  need  professorships,  books,  and 
apparatus,  that  teaching  and  scholarship  may 
abound. 

And  what  will  the  University  do  for  the  commu- 
nity ?  First,  it  will  make  a  rich  return  of  learning, 
poetry,  and  piety.  Secondly,  it  will  foster  the 
sense  of  public  duty  —  that  great  virtue  which 
makes  republics  possible.  The  founding  of  Har- 
vard College  was  an  heroic  act  of  public  spirit. 
For  more  than  a  century  the  breath  of  life  was 

37 


Inaugural  Address 

kept  in  it  by  the  public  spirit  of  the  Province  and 
of  its  private  benefactors.  In  the  last  fifty  years 
the  public  spirit  of  the  friends  of  the  College  has 
quadrupled  its  endowments.  And  how  have  the 
young  men  nurtured  here  in  successive  generations 
repaid  the  founders  for  their  pious  care?  Have 
they  honored  freedom  and  loved  their  country  f 
For  answer  we  appeal  to  the  records  of  the  na- 
tional service ;  to  the  lists  of  the  Senate,  the  cabi- 
net, and  the  diplomatic  service,  and  to  the  rolls  of 
the  army  and  navy.  Honored  men,  here  present, 
illustrate  before  the  world  the  public  quality  of  the 
graduates  of  this  College.  Theirs  is  no  mercenary 
service.  Other  fields  of  labor  attract  them  more 
and  would  reward  them  better ;  but  they  are  filled 
with  the  noble  ambition  to  deserve  well  of  the  re- 
public. There  have  been  doubts,  in  times  yet  re- 
cent, whether  culture  were  not  selfish;  whether 
men  of  refined  tastes  and  manners  could  really 
love  Liberty,  and  be  ready  to  endure  hardness  for 
her  sake ;  whether,  in  short,  gentlemen  would  in 
this  century  prove  as  loyal  to  noble  ideas  as  in 
other  times  they  had  been  to  kings.  In  yonder 
old  playground,  fit  spot  whereon  to  commemorate 
the  manliness  which  there  was  nurtured,  shall 
soon  rise  a  noble  monument  which  for  generations 
will  give  convincing  answer  to  such  shallow 
doubts;  for  over  its  gates  will  be  written:  "In 
memory  of  the  sons  of  Harvard  who  died  for  their 
country."  The  future  of  the  University  wiU  not 
be  unworthy  of  its  past. 


38 


ADDRESS  AT   THE   INAUGURATION   OF 
DANIEL  C.  OILMAN 

AS  PRESIDENT  OF  JOHNS  HOPKINS   UNIVERSITY 
February  22,   1876 


ADDRESS  AT  THE  INAUGURATION 
OF  DANIEL  C.  OILMAN 


THE  oldest  University  of  the  country  cordially 
greets  the  youngest,  and  welcomes  a  worthy 
ally  —  an  ally  strong  in  material  resources  and  in 
high  purpose. 

I  congratulate  you,  gentlemen.  Trustees  of  the 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  upon  the  noble  work 
which  is  before  you.  A  great  property,  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  fruit  of  a  long  life  devoted  with 
energy  and  sagacity  to  the  accumulation  of  riches, 
has  been  placed  in  your  hands,  upon  conditions  as 
magnanimous  as  they  are  wise,  to  be  used  for  the 
public  benefit  in  providing  for  coming  generations 
the  precious  means  of  liberal  culture.  Your  Board 
has  great  powers.  It  must  hold  and  manage  the 
property  of  the  University,  make  all  appointments, 
fix  all  salaries,  and,  while  leaving  both  legislative 
and  administrative  details  to  the  several  faculties 
which  it  will  create,  it  must  also  prescribe  the  gen- 
eral laws  of  the  University.  Your  cares  and  labors 
will  grow  heavy  as  time  goes  on;  but  in  accor- 

41 


Address  at  the  Inauguration  of  Daniel  C.  GUman 

dance  with  an  admirable  usage,  fortunately  estab- 
lished in  this  country,  you  will  serve  without  other 
compensation  than  the  public  consideration  which 
will  justly  attach  to  your  office,  and  the  happy 
sense  of  being  useful.  The  actuating  spirit  of 
your  Board  will  be  a  spirit  of  scrupulous  fidelity 
to  every  trust  reposed  in  you,  and  of  untiring  zeal 
in  promoting  the  welfare  of  the  University  and 
the  advancement  of  learning.  Judged  by  its  dis- 
interestedness, its  beneficence,  and  its  permanence, 
your  function  is  as  pure  and  high  as  any  that  the 
world  knows,  or  in  all  time  has  known.  May  the 
work  which  you  do  in  the  discharge  of  your  sacred 
trust  be  regarded  with  sympathetic  and  expectant 
forbearance  by  the  present  generation,  and  with 
admiration  and  gratitude  by  posterity. 

The  University  which  is  to  take  its  rise  in  the 
splendid  benefaction  of  Johns  Hopkins  must  be 
unsectarian.  None  other  could  as  appropriately 
be  established  in  the  city  named  for  the  Catholic 
founder  of  a  colony  to  which  all  Christian  sects 
were  welcomed,  or  in  the  State  in  which  religious 
toleration  was  expressly  declared  in  the  name  of 
the  government  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  of 
the  Christian  world.  There  is  a  too  common  opin- 
ion that  a  college  or  university  which  is  not  de- 
nominational must  therefore  be  irreligious;  but 
the  absence  of  sectarian  control  should  not  be  con- 
founded with  lack  of  piety.  A  university  whose 
officers  and  students  are  divided  among  many  sects 
need  no  more  be  irreverent  and  irreligious  than  the 
community  which  in  respect  to  diversity  of  creeds 

42 


Address  at  the  Inauguration  of  Daniel  C.  Gilman 

it  resembles.  It  would  be  a  fearful  portent  if 
thorough  study  of  nature  and  of  man  in  all  his 
attributes  and  works,  such  as  befits  a  university, 
led  scholars  to  impiety.  But  it  does  not;  on  the 
contrary,  such  study  fills  men  with  humility  and 
awe,  by  bringing  them  on  every  hand  face  to  face 
with  inscrutable  mystery  and  infinite  power.  The 
whole  work  of  a  university  is  uplifting,  refining, 
and  spiritualizing ;  it  embraces 

"Whatsoever  touches  life 
With  upward  impulse ;  be  He  nowhere  else, 
God  is  in  all  that  liberates  and  lifts, 
In  all  that  humbles,  sweetens,  and  consoles. 

A  university  cannot  be  built  upon  a  sect,  unless, 
indeed,  it  be  a  sect  which  includes  the  whole  of 
the  educated  portion  of  the  nation.  This  Uni- 
versity will  not  demand  of  its  officers  and  students 
the  creed,  or  press  upon  them  the  doctrine,  of  any 
particular  religious  organization;  but  none  the 
less  —  I  should  better  say,  all  the  more  —  it  can 
exert  through  high-minded  teachers  a  strong  moral 
and  religious  influence.  It  can  implant  in  the 
young  breasts  of  its  students  exalted  sentiments 
and  a  worthy  ambition ;  it  can  infuse  into  their 
hearts  the  sense  of  honor,  of  duty,  and  of  re- 
sponsibility. 

I  congratulate  the  city  of  Baltimore,  Mr.  Mayor, 
that  in  a  few  generations  she  will  be  the  seat  of  a 
rich  and  powerful  university.  To  her  citizens  its 
grounds  and  buildings  will  in  time  become  objects 
of  interest  and  pride.    The  libraries  and  other  col- 

43 


Address  at  the  Inauguration  of  Daniel  C.  Gilman 

lections  of  a  university  are  storehouses  of  the 
knowledge  already  acquired  by  mankind,  from 
which  further  invention  and  improvement  proceed. 
They  are  great  possessions  for  any  intelligent  com- 
munity. The  tone  of  society  will  be  sensibly  af- 
fected by  the  presence  of  a  considerable  number  of 
highly  educated  men,  whose  quiet  and  simple  lives 
are  devoted  to  philosophy  and  teaching,  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  common  objects  of  human  pursuit. 
The  University  will  hold  high  the  standards  of 
public  duty  and  public  spirit,  and  will  enlarge  that 
cultivated  class  which  is  distinguished,  not  by 
wealth  merely,  but  by  refinement  and  spirituality. 
I  felicitate  the  State  of  Maryland,  whose  chief 
magistrate  honors  this  assembly  with  his  presence, 
upon  the  establishment  within  her  borders  of  an 
independent  institution  of  the  highest  education. 
The  elementary  school  is  not  more  necessary  to 
the  existence  of  a  free  State  than  the  university. 
The  public-school  system  depends  upon  the  insti- 
tutions of  higher  education,  and  could  not  be 
maintained  in  real  efficiency  without  them.  The 
function  of  colleges,  universities,  and  professional 
schools  is  largely  a  public  function ;  their  work  is 
done  primarily,  indeed,  upon  individuals,  but  ulti- 
mately for  the  public  good.  They  help  powerfully 
to  form  and  mold  aright  the  public  character; 
and  that  public  character  is  the  foundation  of 
everything  which  is  precious  in  the  State,  includ- 
ing even  its  material  prosperity.  In  training  men 
thoroughly  for  the  learned  professions  of  law  and 
medicine,  this  University  will  be  of  great  service 

44 


Address  at  the  Inauguration  of  Daniel  C.  Gilman 

to  Maryland  and  the  neighboring  States.  During 
the  past  forty  years  the  rules  which  governed  ad- 
mission to  these  honorable  and  confidential  pro- 
fessions have  been  carelessly  relaxed  in  most  of 
the  States  of  the  Union,  and  we  are  now  suffering 
great  losses  and  injuries,  both  material  and  moral, 
in  consequence  of  thus  thoughtlessly  abandoning 
the  safer  ways  of  our  fathers.  It  is  for  the  strong 
universities  of  the  country  to  provide  adequate 
means  of  training  young  men  well  for  the  learned 
professions,  and  to  set  a  high  standard  for  profes- 
sional degrees. 

President  Gilman,  this  distinguished  assembly 
has  come  together  to  give  you  Grod-speed.  I  wel- 
come you  to  arduous  duties  and  grave  responsi- 
bilities. In  the  natural  course  of  life  you  will  not 
see  any  large  part  of  the  real  fruits  of  your  labors ; 
for  to  build  a  university  needs  not  years  only,  but 
generations;  but  though  "deeds  unfinished  will 
weigh  on  the  doer,"  and  anxieties  will  sometimes 
oppress  you,  great  privileges  are  nevertheless  at- 
tached to  your  office.  It  is  a  precious  privilege 
that  in  your  ordinary  work  you  will  have  to  do 
only  with  men  of  refinement  and  honor;  it  is  a 
glad  and  animating  sight  to  see  successive  ranks 
of  young  men  pressing  year  by  year  into  the  battle 
of  life,  full  of  hope  and  courage,  and  each  year 
better  armed  and  equipped  for  the  strife;  it  is  a 
privilege  to  serve  society  and  the  country  by  in- 
creasing the  means  of  culture ;  but,  above  all,  you 
will  have  the  great  happiness  of  devoting  yourself 
for  life  to  a  noble  public  work  without  reserve,  or 

45 


Address  at  tbe  Inauguration  of  Daniel  C.  Gilman 

stint,  or  thought  of  self,  looking  for  no  advance- 
ment, "  hoping  for  nothing  again."  Knowing  well 
by  experience  the  nature  of  the  charge  which  you 
this  day  publicly  assume,  familiar  with  its  cares 
and  labors,  its  hopes  and  fears,  its  trials  and  its 
triumphs,  I  give  you  joy  of  the  work  to  which  you 
are  called,  and  welcome  you  to  a  service  which  will 
task  your  every  power. 

The  true  greatness  of  States  lies  not  in  territory, 
revenue,  population,  commerce,  crops,  or  manufac- 
tures, but  in  immaterial  or  spiritual  things ;  in  the 
purity,  fortitude,  and  uprightness  of  their  people, 
in  the  poetry,  literature,  science,  and  art  which 
they  give  birth  to,  in  the  moral  worth  of  their 
history  and  life.  With  nations,  as  with  individ- 
uals, none  but  moral  supremacy  is  immutable  and 
forever  beneficent.  Universities,  wisely  directed, 
store  up  the  intellectual  capital  of  the  race,  and 
become  fountains  of  spiritual  and  moral  power. 
Therefore  our  whole  country  may  well  rejoice 
with  you  that  you  are  auspiciously  founding  here 
a  worthy  seat  of  learning  and  piety.  Here  may 
young  feet,  shunning  the  sordid  paths  of  low  de- 
sire and  worldly  ambition,  walk  humbly  in  the  steps 
of  the  illustrious  dead  —  the  poets,  artists,  philoso- 
phers, and  statesmen  of  the  past ;  here  may  fresh 
minds  explore  new  fields  and  increase  the  sum  of 
knowledge ;  here  from  time  to  time  may  great  men 
be  trained  up  to  be  leaders  of  the  people ;  here  may 
the  irradiating  light  of  genius  sometimes  flash  out 
to  rejoice  mankind ;  above  all,  here  may  many  gen- 
erations of  manly  youth  learn  righteousness. 

46 


TEACHERS'  TENURE  OF  OFFICE 

Before  the  Massachusetts  Teachers'  Association,  December  30,  1879 


TEACHERS'  TENURE  OF   OFFICE 


I  DO  not  propose  to  deal  with  the  question  whether 
a  school  committee  chosen  for  one  year  can 
make  a  contract  with  a  teacher  for  a  period  longer 
than  its  own  term  of  service.  If  public  opinion 
settles  down  upon  the  conviction  that  a  tenure  for 
teachers  during  good  behavior  and  efficiency  is 
expedient  and  desirable,  some  legal  way  of  attain- 
ing what  is  desirable  will  be  found  or  made. 

Passing  by,  then,  this  temporary  obstruction, 
we  ask  at  once,  What  is  the  best  tenure  of  office 
for  teachers  in  the  public  schools  1  To  this  im- 
portant question  I  find  it  impossible  to  give  an 
immediate  and  unconditional  answer.  There  is  a 
prior  question  which  claims  careful  consideration, 
and  a  subsequent  question  which  must  be  dealt 
with  in  its  place.  To  appoint  a  teacher  for  life 
who  had  given  no  proofs  of  fitness  would  be  obvi- 
ously absurd.  A  long  tenure  of  office  implies  a 
careful  selection  of  the  official.  K  no  judicious 
method  of  selecting  teachers  is  used,  the  shorter 
their  tenure  of  office  the  better.    An  intelligent 

49 


Teachers'  Tenure  of  Office 

school  superintendent  in  a  Western  city  once  told 
me  that  all  his  teachers  came  up  for  election  three 
times  a  year,  and  that  he  wished  it  were  oftener. 
It  was  necessary,  he  said,  to  have  frequent  oppor- 
tunities of  getting  rid  of  teachers,  because  so  many 
incompetent  ones  were  appointed.  The  reason  was 
that  the  teachers  were  named  by  a  patronage 
method,  as  is  generally  the  case  in  the  United 
States,  the  patrons  being  for  the  most  part  in- 
competent to  distinguish  between  promising  and 
unpromising  candidates. 

Before  a  long  tenure  can  be  claimed  for  teachers, 
it  is  plain  that  a  sound  system  of  selecting  and 
proving  them  must  have  been  established.  I  can- 
not deal  with  the  question  of  tenure  apart  from 
the  question  of  selection.  The  means  of  careful 
selection  are  two:  First,  examinations  upon  the 
subjects  taught  in  the  schools,  and  such  other 
examinations  as  may  best  exhibit  the  capacities  of 
the  candidates.  These  examinations  should  in- 
clude a  fair  range  of  optional  subjects;  for  it  is 
rather  the  candidates'  powers  of  acquiring,  than 
their  actual  acquisitions,  which  are  to  be  tested, 
and  it  matters  little  in  what  particular  field  of 
knowledge  those  powers  have  been  developed. 
Secondly,  probationary  service  under  the  eyes  of 
competent  judges  of  teachers'  work.  There  is  no 
dispensing  with  actual  service  on  probation,  if 
teachers  are  to  be  chosen  with  reasonable  care ;  for 
examinations  can  test  only  knowledge  and  readi- 
ness, whereas  the  good  teacher  must  also  have  con- 
scientiousness, enthusiasm,  devotion,  and  force  of 

50 


Teachers'  Tenure  of  Office 

character.  The  possession  of  these  qualities,  or 
the  lack  of  them,  can  be  demonstrated  only  in 
active  teaching. 

There  may  well  be  three  successive  probation- 
ary appointments.  The  term  of  the  first  should 
be  short,  not  exceeding  a  year;  that  of  the 
second  should  be  longer,  but  not  more  than  three 
years;  and  that  of  the  third  and  last  five  or  six 
years.  There  is  a  great  advantage  in  having  the 
period  of  probationary  appointments  long  enough 
to  bring  the  teacher  up  to  thirty  or  thirty-two 
years  of  age.  By  that  time  men  and  women  gen- 
erally show  what  they  are  going  to  be.  Some  early 
buds  wither;  some  tardy  blossoms  develop  with 
exceptional  vigor.  Moreover,  with  salaried  per- 
sons marriage  ordinarily  takes  place  before  that 
age.  That  event  generally  stops  a  woman's  teach- 
ing, while  in  men  it  often  works  a  serious  change, 
generally  for  good,  but  sometimes  for  evil.  On 
the  whole,  it  is  safer  to  enter  into  a  permanent 
contract  with  a  man  in  whom  the  effect  of  mar- 
riage is  already  apparent,  than  with  one  who  has 
yet  to  choose  his  mate. 

But  here  we  encounter  a  difficulty,  serious,  but 
by  no  means  insurmountable.  Probationary  ap- 
pointments can  be  of  no  use  whatever  unless  com- 
petent and  responsible  judges  watch  the  service 
rendered  upon  each  appointment,  and  decide  upon 
the  expediency  of  retaining  the  teacher.  Hence 
the  prime  necessity  of  competent  superintendence 
and  inspection.  It  is  obvious  that  a  shifting,  un- 
paid, and  unprofessional  body,  like  a  school  com- 

51 


Teachers    Tenure  of  Office 

mittee,  cannot  adequately  discharge  this  function 
of  superintendence  and  inspection.  They  must 
delegate  it  to  professional  persons  of  high  charac- 
ter, good  judgment,  and  long  tenure.  There  is  no 
need  of  argument  to  prove  that  a  system  of  long 
tenure  for  teachers  can  be  successfully  carried  out 
only  by  competent  superintendents  and  inspectors, 
who  themselves  are  reasonably  secure  in  their 
positions,  and  who  actually  serve  for  long  terms. 
Long  probations  imply  long-continued  observation 
of  the  candidates,  and  a  permanent  policy  deliber- 
ately framed  and  consistently  pursued. 

The  endeavors  of  the  Boston  School  Committee 
to  organize  a  permanent  board  of  supervisors 
deserve  the  hearty  support  of  all  professional 
teachers;  for  the  maintenance  of  some  such  sta- 
ble authority  is  essential  to  the  success  of  all  com- 
prehensive plans  for  improving  the  condition  and 
prospects  of  the  public-school  teacher. 

Supposing  now  that  at  thirty  to  thirty-two  years 
of  age  a  teacher  has  given  all  the  securities  for  fu- 
ture usefulness  which  thorough  preliminary  exam- 
ination and  long  probation  can  supply,  we  ask 
what  should  be  the  nature  of  the  ultimate  appoint- 
ment !  In  the  interest  both  of  the  profession  and 
of  the  community,  it  should  be  an  appointment 
without  limitation  of  time.  There  should  be  no 
recurring  election.  Nevertheless,  the  teacher 
should  be  subject  to  removal  for  inadequate  per- 
formance of  duty  or  for  misconduct,  and  there 
should  be  a  regular  provision  for  the  retirement  of 
superannuated  teachers  upon  pensions  or  annui- 

52 


Teachers*  Tenure  of  Office 

ties.  I  touch  here  the  subsequent  question,  from 
which  I  am  not  able  to  disengage  the  question  of 
tenure:  long  tenures  logically  involve  pensions 
or  annuities.  Further,  there  should  be  absolute 
security  against  reduction  of  salary  for  each  indi- 
vidual once  admitted  to  the  permanent  service.  If 
the  financial  necessities  of  cities  and  towns  really 
compel  the  reduction  of  teachers'  salaries, —  a  well- 
nigh  impossible  supposition, —  these  reductions 
should  take  eJffect  upon  new  appointments  only, 
never  upon  the  old.  I  know  that  this  principle 
of  good  public  administration  is  violated  at  plea- 
sure by  our  national.  State,  and  municipal  govern- 
ments ;  but  I  take  leave  to  say  that  the  practices 
of  our  governments  in  this  respect  are  to  the  last 
degree  barbarous,  shiftless,  and  uneconomical.  It 
is  to  be  observed  that  this  remark  applies  only  to 
public  administration;  the  servants  of  industrial 
or  other  private  companies  of  uncertain  income 
cannot  be  completely  protected  against  the  adverse 
chances  of  business ;  but  government,  whether  na- 
tional, State,  or  municipal,  ought  to  be  able  to  give 
its  servants  two  rewards,  which  to  an  appreciable 
extent  replace  immediate  money  payment,  namely, 
security  of  income  and  public  consideration.  To 
throw  away,  or  make  no  use  of,  these  advantages 
of  its  eminent  position,  is  outrageous  extravagance 
on  the  part  of  government. 

The  dignity,  independence,  and  freedom  from 
solicitude  of  the  teacher's  life  would  be  greatly  en- 
hanced by  deliverance  from  the  necessity  of  secur- 
ing an  annual  reelection,  and  from  apprehension 

53 


Teachers'  Tenure  of  Office 

of  reduction  of  pay.  How  great  a  boon  is  freedom 
from  anxiety  for  the  future !  An  uncertain  tenure 
is  no  great  hardship  in  early  life,  or  so  long  as  a 
man  may  readily  turn  from  one  pursuit  to  an- 
other; but  when  the  prime  of  life  is  past,  and  the 
stiffened  mind  no  longer  bends  easily  to  new  tasks, 
though  still  apt  for  familiar  labors,  an  uncertain 
tenure  gives  terrible  anxiety  to  one  of  prudent 
temperament  who  has  given  hostages  to  fortune. 

Again,  how  precious  would  be  the  independence 
which  an  assured  position  would  give  !  —  precious 
to  the  teacher,  and  of  great  value  also  to  the  pub- 
lic ;  for  I  am  persuaded  that  the  public  now  loses 
much  good  advice  through  the  natural  caution 
and  reserve  of  annually  elected  teachers.  Thirdly, 
security  of  tenure  would  increase  the  public  con- 
sideration which  attaches  to  the  teacher's  oflfice.  It 
is  an  unquestionable  fact  that  the  dignity  of  any 
office  not  purely  political  is  greatly  affected  by 
the  practical  length  of  its  tenure. 

Let  us,  then,  imagine  our  representative  teacher 
of  proved  capacity  appointed  at  thirty  or  thirty- 
two  years  of  age,  during  good  behavior,  upon  an 
assured  salary  sufficient  for  t^e  modest  support  of 
a  family.  He  will  lead  a  tran.;^uil,  independent, 
and  honorable  life,  such  as  promotes  longevity, 
and  favors  the  prolongation  of  mental  and 
bodily  activity  within  familiar  limits  to  an  ad- 
vanced age.  Do  we  not  here  encounter  a  very 
serious  objection  to  a  system  of  long  tenure  ?  Are 
the  schools  to  be  filled  with  aged  teachers  t  some 
one  will  naturally  ask.    Certainly  not,  under  a 

54 


Teachers'  Tenure  of  Office 

complete  and  wise  system.  A  regular  provision 
for  retiring  old  teachers  on  suitable  annuities  is  a 
necessary  supplement  to  a  long-tenure  system. 
It  would  be  very  rash  for  any  city  or  town  to 
appoint  even  proved  teachers  without  limitation 
of  time,  in  the  absence  of  any  proper  means  of 
removing  them  from  the  schools  when  they  get 
tired  out,  inefficient,  or  obstructive.  Retiring  an- 
nuities are  desirable  for  three  reasons:  First, 
they  enable  an  old  teacher,  who  is  disposed  to  rest 
from  strenuous  daily  labor,  to  retire  with  honor, 
and  enjoy  a  repose  which  all  the  world  agrees  he 
has  fairly  earned.  Secondly,  they  enable  the  city 
or  town  to  retire  faithful  teachers  whose  services 
are  no  longer  desirable,  and  to  do  this  in  a  consid- 
erate, just,  and  not  unacceptable  way.  Thirdly, 
the  habitual  use  of  retiring  annuities,  in  part  vol- 
untarily claimed  and  in  part  involuntarily  ac- 
cepted, makes  promotion  through  all  the  grades 
of  a  large  service  more  rapid  than  it  would  other- 
wise be.  This  is  a  great  object,  because  the  pros- 
pect of  slow  promotion  deters  ambitious  young 
persons  from  entering  a  service  which  otherwise 
would  attract  them.  There  are  many  systems  of 
pension,  retiring  annuity,  or  superannuation  allow- 
ance now  in  use  in  different  services  and  different 
nations,  none  perfectly  applicable  to  our  public- 
school  service  without  modification,  but  together 
affording  safe  guidance  to  a  wise  scheme. 

It  is  plain  that  the  administration  of  any  retir- 
ing system  must  be  intrusted  to  some  reasonably 
permanent  authority  which  commands  the  confi- 

55 


Teachers'  Tenure  of  Office 

dence  both  of  the  teachers  and  of  the  public.  "We 
meet  here  again  the  need  of  a  board  of  disinter- 
ested and  judicious  inspectors  permanently  em- 
ployed. 

These,  then,  are  the  three  main  features  of  a 
well-organized  public-school  service:  careful  se- 
lection of  teachers  by  examination  and  probation ; 
ultimate  appointment  without  limitation  of  time ; 
and  a  system  of  retiring  annuities.  These  prin- 
ciples, taken  together,  either  openly  avowed  or 
tacitly  recognized,  are  the  foundation  of  every 
just,  economical,  and  efficient  public  administra- 
tion in  the  world.  To  doubt  the  practicability  of 
a  system  based  on  these  three  principles  is  out  of 
the  question;  for  the  combined  system  has  been 
long  in  force  in  several  highly  civilized  nations. 

Let  me  beg  of  you  not  to  be  deterred  from  giv- 
ing a  candid  consideration  to  the  suggestions  I 
have  offered  by  certain  alarming  adjectives  which 
are  sure  to  be  applied  to  them  by  superficial  critics 
—  undemocratic  and  un-American,  for  example. 
The  method  of  appointment  which  I  have  advo- 
cated is  an  unrestricted  and  prolonged  competition 
before  a  competent  tribunal,  which  would  not  be 
open  to  any  undue  influence,  and  from  which  no 
favors  could  be  expected.  This  process  seems  to 
me  decidedly  more  democratic  than  the  prevailing 
American  method  of  procuring  a  public  place, 
which  method  consists,  as  we  all  know,  first  in 
soliciting  recommendations  for  the  place  from 
persons  who,  for  the  most  part,  know  little  about 
the  duties  of  the  position,  or  the  fitness  of  the 

56 


Teachers'  Tenure  of  Office 

applicant  therefor ;  and,  secondly,  in  soliciting  the 
place  itself  at  the  hands  of  a  patron  presumably 
incompetent  to  make  a  judicious  selection,  and 
himself  in  power  but  for  a  day.  Words  have  lost 
their  meaning  when  a  patronage  method  like  this 
is  called  more  democratic  than  an  open  competi- 
tive method. 

It  cannot  be  held  that  a  long  tenure  is  in  itself 
undemocratic;  for  even  under  regulations  which 
prescribe  annual  elections  the  practical  tenure  of 
schoolmasterships  in  this  city  has  generally  been 
long;  and  in  many  other  services,  such  as  those 
of  colleges,  academies,  banks,  insurance  companies, 
manufacturing  corporations,  and  railway  com- 
panies, long  tenures  of  office  are  practically  famil- 
iar to  our  people,  and  their  advantages  are  well 
understood.  Neither  can  it  be  held  that  pensions 
are  undemocratic.  At  least  that  is  not  alleged 
concerning  the  national  pensions  paid  to  soldiers, 
sailors,  and  judges,  or  the  municipal  pensions  paid 
to  policemen  and  firemen.  Indeed,  each  of  the 
two  great  political  parties  seems  to  be  mortally 
afraid  that  the  other  will  get  ahead  of  it  in  voting 
pensions. 

But  un-American !  How  shall  I  meet  this  easily 
made  objection,  which  is  too  intangible  to  be  re- 
butted by  argument?  The  system  of  public  ad- 
ministration herein  advocated  is  un-American 
only  in  the  sense  that  it  is  not  at  this  moment  in 
force,  as  a  whole,  anywhere  in  the  United  States. 
But  let  us  cherish  the  hope  that  it  is  not  un- 
American  to  accept  facts  and  to  make  progress. 

57 


Teachers'  Tenure  of  Office 

We  need  only  to  be  careful  to  inquire,  in  an  im- 
partial, scientific  spirit,  whether  the  system  which 
has  been  set  forth  is  founded  upon  the  real  needs 
and  rational  desires  of  civilized  human  nature, 
and  is  conformed  to  the  dictates  of  common  sense 
and  common  justice.  If  it  is,  it  may  not  be 
American  to-day,  but  shall  we  not  try  to  make  it 
so  to-morrow  !  The  flatterer  of  the  people  assures 
them  that  they  have  nothing  to  learn  from  other 
nations,  and  that  their  present  opinions  and  prac- 
tices are  the  wisest  possible.  He  has  a  far  stouter 
faith  in  the  intelligence  and  right  purposes  of  the 
people  who  believes  that  they  will  adopt,  as  soon 
as  they  understand  them,  any  administrative 
methods  which  can  be  shown  to  be  more  humane, 
just,  and  effective  than  those  they  now  employ. 


58 


ON  THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINISTERS 

The   "  PRmcETON  Review,"  May,  1883 


ON  THE  EDUCATION  OF 
MINISTERS 


WHAT  I  am  about  to  write  is  applicable  to 
the  Protestant  ministry  only ;  and  for  the 
most  part  I  have  in  mind  only  the  Protestant 
ministry  in  this  country,  although  many  of  the 
facts  and  principles  on  which  I  shall  dwell  have 
the  same  significance  in  Europe  that  they  have 
here.  Let  me  protect  myself  at  the  start  against 
three  possible  misconceptions:  First,  in  urging 
the  need  of  an  ampler  education  for  the  ministry  I 
do  not  mean  to  maintain  by  implication  that  there 
is  no  need  of  uneducated  ministers.  There  may 
be  use  in  the  world  for  devout,  uninstructed  ex- 
horters ;  but  clearly  it  is  not  the  business  of  uni- 
versities and  theological  seminaries  to  provide 
such  a  class  of  men,  and  an  unlimited  supply  of 
such  preachers  would  not  meet  in  the  least  the 
need  of  well-trained  ministers.  Secondly,  I  am 
quite  aware  that  men  of  genius  are  independent 
of  systematic  training  and  instituted  education. 
They  educate  themselves;  they  are  impatient  of 

6i 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

the  easy  highway,  and,  leaping  the  barriers  which 
common  men  find  insurmountable,  they  rush  to 
the  goal  of  all  training  —  power.  But  neither  the 
ministry,  nor  any  other  learned  profession,  con- 
tains many  geniuses :  not  one  man  in  a  thousand 
in  any  profession  has  even  a  spark  of  that  divine 
fire.  The  practical  question  always  is,  How  are 
industrious  and  faithful  men  of  good  natural  parts 
to  be  so  trained  and  equipped  as  to  give  them  in- 
tellectual and  moral  superiority!  Thirdly,  if  in 
this  paper  I  say  nothing  about  the  sensibility, 
earnestness,  and  piety  which  should  characterize 
the  minister,  it  is  not  because  I  do  not  know  that 
these  qualities  are  essential  to  the  success  of  his 
work.  I  propose  to  deal  only  with  the  surround- 
ings and  mental  furnishing  of  the  minister,  not 
with  his  inspiration. 

My  subject,  thus  limited,  may  be  conveniently 
stated  in  two  propositions,  as  follows :  I.  The  posi- 
tion and  environment  of  the  Protestant  minister 
have  changed  fundamentally  within  a  hundred 
years.  II.  To  fit  him  for  his  proper  place  in 
modern  society  much  greater  changes  ought  to  be 
made  in  his  traditional  education  than  have  here- 
tofore been  attempted. 

I.  Not  many  centuries  ago  the  clergy  were  the 
only  men  who  could  read  and  write ;  only  one  cen- 
tury ago  they  were  a  large  majority  of  all  the  men 
who  could  be  said  to  lead  intellectual  lives.  In 
the  ten  years  from  1761  to  1770  the  percentage  of 
ministers  among  the  graduates  of  Harvard  College 
was  29,  of  Yale  32,  and  of  Princeton  45.    In  other 

62 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

words,  one  third  of  all  the  educated  men  were  min- 
isters. In  the  six  years  from  1871  to  1876  the  per- 
centage of  ministers  among  the  graduates  of  the 
same  institutions  was  in  Harvard  5|,  in  Yale  7,  in 
Princeton  17 ;  that  is,  not  more  than  one  in  thir- 
teen of  the  graduates  of  these  colleges  became  a 
minister.  I  lately  published  a  table  which  exhib- 
ited the  occupations  of  1226  recent  graduates  of 
Harvard  College.  It  appeared  from  this  table  that 
two  thirds  of  the  whole  number  had  entered  pro- 
fessions which  may  be  called  learned,  namely,  law, 
medicine,  theology,  the  scientific  professions,  and 
teaching ;  but  of  these  two  thirds  only  one  man  in 
thirteen  was  a  minister,  and  the  other  twelve  count 
themselves  fully  his  equal  in  intelligence  and  capa- 
city. If,  however,  we  would  fully  appreciate  the 
very  different  competition,  so  to  speak,  to  which 
the  minister  of  to-day  is  subjected  from  that  to 
which  his  predecessor  of  one  hundred  years  ago 
was  exposed,  we  must  go  quite  beyond  these  statis- 
tics, and  consider  the  undeveloped  condition  a 
century  ago  of  the  other  professions  called  learned, 
and  the  absence  of  what  we  now  call  the  press. 
No  public  provision  was  then  made  for  systemati- 
cally training  men  for  any  profession  except  the 
ministry.  A  youth  who  aspired  to  be  a  lawyer  or 
physician  could  only  put  himself  under  the  in- 
struction of  some  established  practitioner.  The 
class  of  men  and  women  who  now  teach  in  high 
schools,  academies,  and  private  classical  schools 
did  not  exist  at  aU.  The  scientific  professions 
were  not  so  much  as  conceived  of.    The  practice 

63 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

of  the  law  related  chiefly  to  real-estate  disputes 
and  the  collection  of  debts  by  the  process  of  im- 
prisonment —  except,  of  course,  that  a  few  eminent 
men,  who  lived  in  or  near  the  maritime  ports,  got 
a  better  business  out  of  shipping  or  politics. 
Medicine  was  an  empirical  art;  and  although  it 
was  practised  by  a  few  men  of  great  natural  powers, 
the  barber-surgeon  and  the  ignorant  midwife  were 
by  no  means  extinct.  Most  important  of  all  in 
this  comparison,  the  modern  newspaper,  the  pe- 
riodical, and  the  cheap  book  did  not  exist.  The 
weekly  sermons  and  prayer-meetings  were  almost 
the  sole  intellectual  exercises  of  our  ancestors  in 
the  last  century,  except  for  the  very  few  who  could 
afford  the  costly  luxury  of  books.  In  our  time, 
four  days'  labor  of  one  man  will  pay  for  more  read- 
ing matter  than  an  ordinary  farmer's  or  mechanic's 
family  will  care  to  read  in  a  year,  namely,  a  local 
paper,  a  religious  paper,  a  magazine,  and  some 
cheap  editions  of  current  books.  The  minister  in 
the  quietest  village,  as  well  as  in  the  manufacturing 
town  and  the  great  seaport,  is  in  competition  with 
this  new  teacher,  the  press,  which  by  the  regular 
and  frequent  public  mails  delivers  its  lessons  in 
every  household.  It  is  very  clear,  then,  that  the 
competitors  of  the  minister  for  consideration  and 
influence  have  increased  extraordinarily  in  number 
and  power  during  the  past  hundred  years. 

Let  us  next  consider  how  very  different  the  con- 
dition of  society  is  to-day  from  its  condition  when 
Channing  was  born  (1780),  and  how  deeply  the 
great  social  changes  which  have  taken  place  since 

64 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

the  Revolution  have  affected  the  work  of  the  min- 
istry. The  principle  of  association  for  purposes 
of  business,  charity,  worship,  instruction,  or  plea- 
sure has  been  so  extended  that  the  extension 
amounts  to  the  introduction  of  a  new  principle. 
There  were  partnerships,  and  in  rare  cases  com- 
panies, for  business  purposes  in  older  times,  but 
no  corporations  in  the  modern  sense.  The  church 
was  upheld  by  the  only  body  corporate,  namely, 
the  state.  The  noun  "  operative  "  was  not  in  the 
dictionary  at  the  time  of  our  Revolution,  that 
mode  of  human  life  not  yet  existing.  There  was 
no  continual  discussion  of  such  social  evils  as  in- 
temperance, prostitution,  divorce,  and  pauperism, 
and  no  associated  action  in  contending  against 
these  evils.  The  distinction  between  rich  and 
poor  was  far  from  being  as  wide  and  deep  as  it  is 
now  among  us.  Our  forefathers  acted  as  if  they  had 
received  and  acquiesced  in  the  doctrine  of  the  sur- 
vival of  the  fittest  a  century  in  advance  of  its  dis- 
covery ;  the  sickly  among  them  died,  the  insane 
languished  or  raged  in  hopeless  confinement ;  and 
the  poor  and  shiftless  went  hungry  and  cold.  No 
philanthropic  notions  confused  their  clear  views 
about  the  judgments  of  God  and  His  afflictive 
providences.  No  sanitary  science  disquieted  them 
with  the  suggestion  that  results  which  they  at- 
tributed to  the  wrath  of  G-od  might  with  greater 
probability  be  ascribed  to  the  negligence  of  man. 
How  profoundly  changed  are  the  beliefs  and  expec- 
tations of  the  public  on  all  these  subjects !  There 
is  no  social  problem  to-day,  however  difficult,  upon 
6  65 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

which  the  minister  is  not  expected  to  have  his 
mind  made  up,  and  to  be  ready  for  action.  Yet 
the  evils  to  which  these  problems  relate  are  ex- 
traordinarily complicated  in  their  origin  and  de- 
velopment, and  the  remedies  for  them  are  notori- 
ously difficult  to  devise  and  apply,  slow-working, 
and  hard  to  follow  out  in  practical  operation. 
Sentiment  is  a  very  unsafe  guide  in  these  matters ; 
and  the  coolest  philosopher,  acquainted  with  politi- 
cal economy,  medicine,  and  the  history  of  legisla- 
tion on  behalf  of  public  morality,  will  be  often  at 
fault.  All  these  difficulties  which  beset  the  min- 
ister of  to-day  are  of  recent  origin ;  in  this  country 
they  hardly  antedate  the  present  century.  When 
our  grandfathers  were  in  their  prime  the  sciences 
of  chemistry,  zoology,  and  geology  were  in  a  very 
rudimentary  condition,  while  electricity  had  hardly 
been  discovered ;  moreover,  no  natural  science  had 
been  as  yet  popularized.  The  word  attributed  to 
God  had  not  been  critically  compared  with  His 
works. 

Thirdly,  we  are  to  observe  that  the  temper  of 
the  public  mind  has  undergone  a  wonderful 
change,  within  a  century,  upon  several  points 
which  vitally  affect  the  clerical  profession.  In 
the  first  place,  the  weight  of  all  authority  has 
greatly  diminished,  and  the  sources  of  recognized 
authority  are  quite  different  from  what  they  were 
a  century  ago.  The  priest,  like  the  secular  ruler, 
has  lost  all  that  magical  or  necromantic  quality 
which  formerly  inspired  the  multitude  with  awe ; 
and  the  divine  right  of  the  minister  is  as  dead 

66 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

among  Protestants  in  our  country  as  the  divine 
right  of  kings.  The  authority  of  the  minister  is 
now  derived  from  the  purity  and  strength  of  his 
character,  from  the  vigor  of  his  intelligence  and 
the  depth  of  his  learning,  and  from  the  power  of 
his  speech.  Candor,  knowledge,  wisdom,  and  love 
can  alone  give  him  authority.  His  cloth,  his  office, 
and  his  sacerdotal  quality  no  longer  command  in 
themselves  the  respect  they  once  did ;  forms,  rites, 
and  ceremonies  may  protect  him  from  rude  assault, 
but  can  give  him  no  particle  of  power.  Again,  the 
people  in  these  days  question  all  things  and  all 
men,  and  accept  nothing  without  examination. 
They  have  observed  that  discussion  often  elicits 
truth,  that  controversy  is  useful  on  many  difficult 
subjects,  and  that  in  some  circumstances  many 
heads  are  better  than  one;  hence  they  have  learned 
to  distrust  all  ex-cathedra  teaching,  and  to  wait 
for  the  consent  of  many  minds  before  giving  their 
adhesion  to  new  doctrines.  We  hardly  realize  how 
very  recently  the  masses  have  acquired  these  in- 
valuable habits,  or  how  profoundly  these  habits 
have  affected  the  position  of  the  minister.  To  the 
modern  mind  the  exemption  of  the  minister  from 
instant  debate  carries  with  it  a  loss  of  influence. 
The  lawyer  daily  encounters  his  adversary,  the 
business  man  his  competitor,  and  the  statesman 
his  political  opponent:  but  no  one  answers  the 
minister;  and  the  people  think  that  a  protected 
man  may  not  be  a  strong  man.  Thirdly,  political 
ideas  have  had  in  this  century  and  this  country 
a  strong  influence  upon  theological  ideas.    The  old 

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On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

monarchical  and  military  metaphors  which  have 
long  been  used  to  set  forth  the  nature  of  God  are 
less  satisfying  in  our  day  than  they  were  once; 
for  king,  prince,  conqueror,  and  lord  of  hosts  are 
less  majestic  titles  than  they  used  to  be.  The 
grand  and  beautiful  image  which  rises  before  our 
minds  at  the  words  "our  country"  is  seen  to  be 
an  immeasurably  worthier  object  of  devotion  than 
any  human  potentate,  and  a  better  symbol  of  the 
infinite  G-od.  In  the  brief  period  since  the  welfare 
of  the  many  came  to  be  recognized  as  the  prime 
object  and  only  legitimate  aim  of  human  govern- 
ments, men's  ideas  have  changed  considerably 
about  the  government  of  God.  When  men  per- 
ceive that  popular  governments  are  possible,  and 
that  such  governments  have  been  able,  even  in  the 
course  of  the  few  generations  during  which  the 
right  ends  of  all  government  have  been  recognized, 
sensibly  to  improve  the  condition  of  great  masses 
of  mankind,  they  naturally  begin  to  doubt  if  men 
be  totally  depraved,  and  if  the  main  object  of 
God's  government  from  eternity  to  eternity  has 
been  the  welfare  of  an  elect  few  of  only  one  species 
out  of  the  many  kinds  of  creature  that  joy  to  live 
upon  this  earth;  to  question  the  authenticity  of 
alleged  revelations  which  are  said  to  contain  such 
doctrine ;  and  to  distrust  religious  teachers  whose 
tenets  seem  to  be  so  at  variance  with  the  cherished 
political  convictions  and  hopes  of  the  people.  In 
former  times  religion,  with  mistaken  views  of  its 
own  function  and  that  of  government,  bolstered 
arbitrary  power ;  in  our  day  the  principles  of  free 

68 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

government  are  undermining  the  false  tenets  of 
religion,  but  not  the  true.  The  Protestant  ministry 
as  a  whole  will  not  recover  their  influence  with  the 
people  of  this  country,  until  the  accepted  dogmas 
of  the  churches  square  with  the  political  convic- 
tions of  the  people.  This  intimate  connection  be- 
tween the  religion  of  a  people  and  their  politics  is 
no  new  thing:  it  is  to  be  seen  in  the  history  of  all 
great  peoples;  and  it  is  likely  to  continue  to  mani- 
fest itself,  "religion,"  as  Lord  Bacon  says,  "being 
the  chief  band  of  human  society." 

We  come  now,  in  the  fourth  place  under  this 
head,  to  the  most  potent  cause  of  change  in  the 
relative  position  of  the  ministry  within  this  cen- 
tury, namely,  the  rise  and  development  of  physical 
and  natural  science.  The  immense  acquisitions  of 
actual  knowledge  which  have  been  amassed  in  this 
new  field,  the  great  increase  of  man's  power  over 
nature,  the  consequent  changes  in  each  man's  rela- 
tion to  his  fellow-men  and  to  the  physical  earth, 
including  the  wonderful  expansion  of  his  interests 
and  sympathies,  his  emancipation  from  supersti- 
tions, and  the  exaltation  of  his  prospects  and  hopes, 
are  all  facts  of  the  utmost  moment  to  the  race; 
but  it  is  not  these  facts,  tremendous  though  they 
are,  which  most  concern  us  in  the  present  discus- 
sion. The  important  point  for  us  now  to  observe 
is  that,  during  the  growth  of  natural  science,  a 
new  method,  or  spirit,  of  inquiry  has  been  gradually 
developed,  which  is  characterized  by  an  absolute 
freedom  on  the  part  of  the  inquirer  from  the  influ- 
ence of  prepossessions  or  desires  as  to  results. 
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On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

This  spirit  seeks  only  the  fact,  without  the  slight- 
est regard  to  consequences;  any  twisting  or  ob- 
scuring of  the  fact  to  accommodate  it  to  a  pre- 
conceived theory,  hope,  or  wish,  any  tampering 
with  the  actual  result  of  investigation,  is  the  un- 
pardonable sin.  It  is  a  spirit  at  once  humble  and 
dauntless,  patient  of  details,  drawing  indeed  no 
distinction  between  great  and  small,  but  only  be- 
tween true  and  false;  passionless  but  energetic, 
venturing  into  pathless  wastes  to  bring  back  a  fact, 
caring  only  for  truth,  candid  as  a  still  lake,  expec- 
tant, unfettered,  and  tireless. 

Work  of  his  hand 
He  nor  commends  nor  grieves : 

Pleads  for  itself  the  fact ; 
As  unrepenting  Nature  leaves 

Her  every  act. 

The  achievements  of  scientific  inquirers,  ani- 
mated by  this  spirit  of  sincerity  and  truth,  have 
been  so  extraordinary  within  the  past  sixty  years, 
and  this  candid  spirit  is  in  itself  so  admirable,  that 
the  educated  world  has  accepted  it  as  the  only  true 
inspiration  of  research  in  all  departments  of  learn- 
ing. No  other  method  of  inquiry  now  commands 
respect.  Even  the  ignorant  have  learned  to  de- 
spise the  process  of  searching  for  proofs  of  a 
foregone  conclusion.  Apologetics  have  ceased  to 
convince  anybody,  if  they  ever  did.  Thus  the 
civilized  world  has  set  up  a  new  standard  of  intel- 
lectual sincerity,  and  Protestant  theologians  and 
ministers  must  rise  to  that  standard,  if  they  would 

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On  ibe  Education  of  Ministers 

continue  to  command  the  respect  of  mankind. 
How  different  was  the  situation  of  the  profession 
when  diplomacy  was  the  only  other  learned  call- 
ing !  Even  the  legal  profession,  as  it  was  gradually 
differentiated  from  the  clerical,  made  no  such  sharp 
requisition  of  mental  honesty  and  independence. 
It  is  the  electric  light  of  science  which  has  made 
white  and  transparent  the  whole  temple  of  learning. 
These  remarks  imply  that  ministers,  as  a  class, 
and  as  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  ordinary 
manner  of  their  education  and  induction  into  of- 
fice, are  peculiarly  liable  to  be  deficient  in  intel- 
lectual candor;  and  that  is  what  I,  in  common 
with  millions  of  thoughtful  men,  really  think ;  and 
I  think  further  that  this  belief  on  the  part  of  mul- 
titudes of  educated  men,  most  of  whom  are  silent 
on  the  subject,  is  a  potent  cause  of  the  decline  of 
the  ministry  during  the  past  forty  years.  The 
fault  is  quite  as  much  that  of  the  churches  or  sects 
as  of  the  individual  ministers;  for  almost  every 
church  or  sect  endeavors  to  tie  its  members,  and 
particularly  its  ministers,  to  a  creed,  a  set  of  arti- 
cles, or  a  body  of  formulas.  These  bonds  are  put 
on  by  most  ministers  at  an  early  age,  and  must  be 
worn  all  their  lives,  on  peril  of  severing  beloved 
associations,  or  perhaps  losing  a  livelihood.  The 
study,  reading,  and  experience  of  fifty  years  are 
supposed  to  work  no  essential  change  in  the  opin- 
ions of  the  youth.  The  creed,  or  the  articles,  may 
be  somewhat  vague  and  elastic,  but  cannot  hon- 
estly be  stretched  much.  Now  the  lay  world  be- 
lieves in  the  progress  of  knowledge,  because  it  has 

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On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

witnessed  progress ;  and  it  is  persuaded  that  there 
must  be  incessant  progress  in  theological  science 
as  well  as  in  all  other  branches  of  learning.  It 
does  not  see  metaphysicians,  physicians,  historians, 
chemists,  zoologists,  or  geologists  committing  them- 
selves in  youth  to  a  set  of  opinions  which  is  to  last 
them  a  lifetime,  or  even  a  day;  on  the  contrary, 
it  sees  all  these  classes  of  scholars  avowedly 
holding  their  present  opinions  subject  to  change 
upon  the  discovery  of  new  facts  or  of  better  light 
upon  old  facts,  and,  as  a  rule,  actually  modify- 
ing their  opinions  in  important  respects  between 
youth  and  age.  Indeed,  fixity  of  opinion  is  hardly 
respectable  among  scholars.  K  it  be  said  that 
there  can  be  no  progress  in  theology,  because 
revelation  was  a  fixed  historical  quantity,  the  an- 
swer is  that  revelation,  like  creation,  must  be  fluent; 
or,  in  other  words,  that  the  interpretation  of  reve- 
lation to  the  mind  of  man  must  be  like  the  inter- 
pretation of  creation,  ever  flowing,  shifting,  and, 
if  the  mind  of  man  improves,  improving.  No 
other  profession  is  under  such  terrible  stress  of 
temptation  to  intellectual  dishonesty  as  the  clerical 
profession  is;  and  at  the  same  time  the  public 
standard  of  intellectual  candor  has  been  set  higher 
than  ever  before.  This  is  the  state  of  things  which 
deters  many  young  men  of  ability  and  indepen- 
dence from  entering  the  profession,  and  causes  the 
acknowledged  dearth  of  able  ministers.  Doubtless 
public  opinion  is  not  perfectly  just  to  the  profes- 
sion, and  doubtless  the  evil  which  deters  young 
men  of  promise  from  entering  the  ministry  is  less 

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On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

grave  than  they  think  it  to  be;  but  the  serious 
facts  remain,  namely,  that  public  opinion  among 
laymen  is  adverse  to  the  profession  on  this  point, 
and  that  young  men  of  force  are  deterred  by  the 
sight  of  this  evil  from  entering  it. 

Finally,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  position  of 
a  minister  is  less  stable  and  his  livelihood  less  cer- 
tain than  it  was  in  the  last  century.  His  hold 
upon  his  congregation  is  now  purely  personal,  and 
is  quite  unsupported  by  the  state  or  by  any  eccle- 
siastical authority.  On  the  other  hand,  the  average 
pay  of  ministers  is  now  larger  in  proportion  to  the 
prices  of  prime  necessaries  than  it  was  in  the  last 
century,  and  there  are  many  prizes  in  the  profes- 
sion of  large  value  as  regards  both  money  and 
consideration.  In  view  of  these  numerous  prizes 
and  the  small  competition  for  them,  the  profession 
is  not  unattractive  pecuniarily.  It  is  not  the  aver- 
age earnings  in  any  learned  profession,  but  its 
few  prizes,  which  induce  ambitious  young  men  to 
enter  it. 

In  1824  Channing  said  at  the  ordination  of  his 
colleague :  "  The  communication  of  moral  and  reli- 
gious truth  is  the  most  important  office  committed 
to  men."  Forty-five  years  ago  next  summer  Emer- 
son said  to  the  senior  class  of  the  Harvard  Divinity 
School :  "  To  this  holy  ofl&ce  you  propose  to  devote 
yourselves.  I  wish  you  may  feel  your  call  in 
throbs  of  desire  and  hope.  The  ofl&ce  is  the  first 
in  the  world."  The  opinion  expressed  by  these 
two  seers  rested  simply  on  observation,  reason,  and 
experience;   they  pronounced  the  judgment  of  all 

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On  the  Education  0}  Ministers 

ages  and  of  all  mankind ;  nothing  has  ever  hap- 
pened to  invalidate  it,  and  every  advance  which 
the  race  has  made  in  knowledge  and  power  has 
confirmed  it.  There  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  rank  of 
the  office;  but  there  is  a  practical  question  how 
men  may  be  made  fit  to  hold  it.  The  calling  of 
the  preacher  is  more  difficult  now  than  it  has  ever 
been,  but  it  is  also  loftier,  and  it  ought  to  be  more 
attractive.  The  improvement  of  his  hearers  in 
general  intelligence,  range  of  interests,  and  inquisi- 
tiveness  is  a  gain  to  him,  not  a  loss;  that  he  has 
more  comrades  in  the  intellectual  life  than  his  pre- 
decessors had  should  be  a  satisfaction  to  him  ;  that 
he  has  many  worthy  competitors,  who  with  their 
various  messages  claim  the  public  ear,  should  be 
no  discouragement  to  him,  but  rather  a  stimulus ; 
that  greater  demands  are  now  made  upon  the 
knowledge  and  judgment  of  the  minister  in  prac- 
tical affairs  than  formerly  should  only  prompt  the 
aspirant  to  prepare  himself  to  meet  those  de- 
mands; that  the  adventitious  distinctions  of  the 
profession  have  come  to  naught  should  delight 
him.  It  is  indubitable  that  the  political  changes 
of  the  past  century  have  been  for  the  better,  that 
the  progress  of  science  has  made  the  earth  a  more 
cheerful  and  comfortable  home  for  the  race  than  it 
ever  was  before,  and  that  modern  society  is  better 
worth  preaching  to  than  any  earlier  society.  Ma- 
terial well-being  has  wonderfully  increased,  but  it 
was  never  plainer  than  it  is  now,  that  "  man  shall 
not  live  by  bread  alone."  Many  new  avenues  to 
distinction  and  usefulness  have  been  opened  to 

74 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

men  of  vigor,  but  never  had  the  true  priest  so  high 
a  station  and  so  great  an  influence  as  he  has  to- 
day. As  Emerson  said  in  the  address  already- 
quoted,  "  Discharge  to  men  the  priestly  office,  and, 
present  or  absent,  you  shall  be  followed  with  their 
love  as  by  an  angel." 

It  is  then  a  practical  and  a  timely  inquiry.  How 
can  young  men  be  better  trained  than  they  have 
ever  been  to  discharge  the  priestly  office ;  how  can 
the  traditional  education  of  a  minister  be  modified 
and  enlarged  so  as  to  enable  him  to  meet  the  new 
demands  which  modern  society  makes  upon  him  ? 
I  take  up  here  the  second  branch  of  my  subject, 
namely,  the  proposition  that  to  prepare  the  minis- 
ter for  his  work  in  modern  society  grave  changes 
ought  to  be  made  in  his  traditional  education. 

II.  In  the  first  place,  theological  study,  if  it  is  to 
be  respected  by  laymen,  must  absolutely  be  carried 
on  with  the  same  freedom  for  teacher  and  pupil 
which  is  enjoyed  in  other  great  departments  of 
learning.  This  fundamental  principle  does  not  at 
all  imply,  as  some  have  supposed,  that  teachers  of 
theology  (I  use  that  term  in  the  widest  sense)  are  to 
have  no  convictions,  or  at  least  are  to  express  none. 
It  simply  means  that  the  teacher  is  free  to  think 
and  say  whatever  seems  to  him  good,  and  to 
change  his  mind  as  often  as  he  likes ;  and  that  the 
pupil  is  free  to  adopt  whatever  opinions  or  theories 
most  commend  themselves  to  his  judgment  after 
he  has  studied  the  subject.  This  academic  free- 
dom is  much  more  likely  to  be  obtained  in  univer- 
sities, and  in  cities  which  are  large  enough  to  be 

75 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

centers  of  diversified  intellectual  activity,  than  it 
is  in  isolated  denominational  seminaries.  I  see, 
therefore,  with  satisfaction  that  students  of  the- 
ology in  this  country  resort  more  and  more  to  uni- 
versities and  to  seminaries  situated  in  large  cities. 
Secondly,  two  practices  which  greatly  discredit 
the  ministry  in  the  eyes  of  laymen  ought  to  be 
stopped :  I  mean,  first,  the  practice  of  subsidizing 
boys  in  academies  and  colleges  from  the  funds  of 
sectarian  societies,  on  the  understanding  that  the 
beneficiaries  will  subsequently  go  into  the  minis- 
try; and,  secondly,  the  practice  of  supporting  in 
theological  seminaries,  and  ultimately  imposing 
upon  parishes,  young  men  of  small  mental  ca- 
pacity and  flaccid  physical  or  moral  fiber.  The 
belief  prevalent  among  laymen  that  boys  are 
tempted  to  pledge  themselves  to  the  clerical  pro- 
fession by  the  attractive  offer  of  a  liberal  educa- 
tion, and  that  incompetent  and  unworthy  persons 
are  drawn  into  the  seminaries  by  the  standing 
offer  of  gratuitous  board,  lodging,  and  instruction, 
works  incalculable  injury  to  the  Protestant  minis- 
try. This  belief  wounds  the  reputation  of  the 
profession  in  its  most  vital  part ;  for  it  impairs 
confidence  in  its  sincerity.  The  gratuitous  char- 
acter of  the  ordinary  theological  training  supplied 
by  denominational  seminaries  is  in  itself  an  injury 
to  the  Protestant  ministry.  It  would  be  better  for 
the  profession,  on  the  whole,  if  no  young  men 
could  get  into  it  except  those  whose  parents  are 
able  to  support  them,  and  those  who  have  capacity 
and  energy  enough  to  earn  their  own  way.    These 

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On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

tests  constitute  a  natural  method  of  selection, 
which  has  long  been  applied  in  the  other  learned 
professions  to  their  great  advantage.  Exceptions 
should  be  made  in  favor  of  needy  young  men  of 
decided  merit  and  promise,  to  whom  scholarships 
should  be  awarded  on  satisfactory  tests  of  ability 
and  character.^  It  is  much  to  be  wished  that 
young  men  who  are  not  entirely  dependent  on 
their  own  earnings  —  sons  of  well-to-do  people,  for 
example  —  should  go  into  the  ministry,  as  they  are 
constantly  going  into  law  and  medicine.  The  pro- 
fession has  much  to  offer  besides  an  honorable  live- 
lihood :  it  offers  to  the  fit  man  consideration,  the 
sense  of  usefulness,  and  the  great  privilege  of  giv- 
ing himself  to  the  highest  human  interests  and 
keeping  his  mind  full  of  great  themes.    A  young 

1  The  usefulness  of  beneficiary  every  respect  calculated  to  make 
endowments  seems  to  me  to  de-  the  receipt  of  beneficiary  aid  hon- 
pend  upon  the  strict  observance  orable.  7.  No  pledges,  either  ex- 
of  the  following  rules  of  adminis-  plicit  or  implied,  should  be  taken 
tration :  1.  No  aid  should  be  prom-  from  beneficiaries  in  regard  to  re- 
ised  merely  on  recommendations  ligious  belief,  personal  habits,  or 
or  certificates,  or  in  advance  of  future  profession,  and  no  services 
satisfactory  tests  of  scholarship  or  observances  should  be  ex- 
and  character.  2.  All  awards  pected  of  them  which  are  not  ex- 
should  be  based  upon  merit,  and  pected  of  other  students,  unless, 
merit  alone.  3.  No  aid  should  indeed,  they  are  able  to  aid  in  the 
be  given  except  to  persons  of  un-  teaching.  The  injury,  which  the 
questionable  promise  —  physical,  undiscriminating  use  of  the  large 
mental,  and  moral.  4.  An  imme-  beneficiary  funds  possessed  by 
diate  return  for  the  aid  should  be  some  of  the  most  considerable 
exacted  in  good  scholarship.  5.  education  societies  and  theolog- 
The  aid  should  fall  short  of  com-  ical  seminaries  in  this  coimtryhas 
plete  support,  except  in  the  case  inflicted,  as  I  think,  upon  the  cler- 
of  advanced  students  who  seem  ical  profession,  is  by  no  means 
capable  of  such  researches  as  pro-  without  remedy ;  but  the  evil  must 
mote  the  progress  of  knowledge,  be  recognized  by  the  responsible 
6.  All  awards  should  be  public,  managers  of  such  endowments 
the  conditions  of  award  being  in  before  it  can  be  cured. 

77 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

man  who  has  a  modest  competency,  or  whose  pa- 
rents can  support  him,  as  parents  support  for  years 
young  lawyers  and  physicians,  enters  the  clerical 
profession  with  this  great  advantage  over  a  man 
who  has  no  means  of  living  except  his  salary :  he 
is  known  to  be  independent  of  the  pecuniary  rela- 
tion with  his  congregation,  and  this  recognized  in- 
dependence strengthens  their  faith  in  his  sincerity 
and  disinterestedness. 

Thirdly,  let  us  consider  what  the  mental  fur- 
nishing of  a  minister  ought  to  be.  The  subjects 
which  in  our  day  should  be  set  before  a  candidate 
for  the  ministry  are  divisible  into  two  classes: 
those  which  every  candidate  should  master,  and 
those  from  which  every  candidate  should  make  a 
limited  selection.  In  any  respectable  university 
all  the  subjects  which  I  am  about  to  enumerate 
will  be  somewhere  taught,  and  it  does  not  matter 
for  our  purpose  in  what  department  the  student 
finds  the  teacher  he  needs ;  but  since  many  of  the 
required  subjects  are  not  taught  at  all  in  ordinary 
theological  seminaries,  it  would  be  necessary  for  a 
student  who  proposed  to  attend  a  seminary  not 
connected  with  a  university  to  pursue  elsewhere 
some  of  the  preliminary  studies.  In  universities, 
properly  so  called,  a  zealous  student  ought  to  have 
no  difficulty  in  mastering  all  the  preliminary  re- 
quired subjects  while  a  candidate  for  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  in  counting  them  all  toward 
that  degree.  The  preliminary  subjects  which  every 
student  of  theology  should  in  my  judgment  be  re- 
quired to  master  are  as  follows : 

78 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

1.  Languages :  G-reek  (including  New  Testament 
Greek),  Latin,  Hebrew,  and  German. 

2.  English  literature,  with  practice  in  writing, 
and  study  of  style. 

3.  The  elements  of  psychology. 

4.  The  elements  of  political  economy. 

5.  Constitutional  history,  or  the  history  of  some 
interesting  period  of  moderate  length. 

6.  Science:  botany,  zoology,  or  geology,  studied 
in  the  laboratory  and  the  field. 

The  requisitions  in  the  languages  other  than 
English  are  the  only  ones  in  this  list  which  are 
now  habitually  enforced  in  theological  seminaries. 
The  acquisition  of  a  reasonable  facility  in  reading 
should  be  the  main  object  in  view  while  studying 
all  four  languages.  These  linguistic  studies  are 
valuable  for  training,  for  the  ideas  and  informa- 
tion acquired,  and,  in  the  case  of  Latin  and  Ger- 
man, for  the  power  to  be  gained  of  studying  other 
subjects  in  books  written  in  either  of  these  lan- 
guages. A  minister  greatly  needs — no  matter 
whether  his  congregation  be  cultivated  or  unculti- 
vated —  a  comprehensive  and  critical  acquaintance 
with  English  literature ;  yet  how  few  have  it !  At 
present,  the  theological  seminaries  enforce  no  re- 
quisitions on  this  subject ;  and  since  many  Ameri- 
can colleges  pay  very  little  attention  to  it,  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  is  no  evidence  that  the 
graduate  has  had  an  adequate  opportunity  of  study- 
ing English  literature  systematically.  If  it  be  said 
that  this  subject  can  be  left  to  after  years  and  pri- 
vate reading,  I  reply  that  there  is  no  study  in  which 

79 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

good  guidance  is  of  more  value,  that  large  libraries 
are  not  accessible  in  every  parish,  and  that  the 
policy  of  leaving  the  subject  to  each  man's  after 
study  has  been  tried  long  and  found  utterly  want- 
ing. That  a  minister  should  know  something  of 
the  science  which  deals  with  the  phenomena  of 
mind  requires  no  urging.  A  knowledge  of  the  first 
principles  of  political  economy  would  be  useful  to 
the  minister  in  several  ways :  first,  to  guide  him  in 
charitable  and  reformatory  undertakings;  secondly, 
to  guard  him  against  making  public  mistakes  about 
trade,  finance,  taxation,  capital,  labor,  and  similar 
topics  which  are  sure  to  be  more  familiar  to  some 
of  his  parishioners  than  to  him;  and,  thirdly,  to 
offset  the  general  drift  of  his  habitual  studies 
toward  a  too  sentimental  philanthropy.  The  pre- 
liminary education  of  a  minister  should  embrace 
some  fragment  of  political  history  in  order  that  he 
may  early  learn  how  all  history  is  to  be  studied. 
The  constitutional  history  of  England  or  of  the 
United  States,  or  the  history  of  some  important 
period  —  like  the  period  of  the  Eef ormation,  or  of 
the  English  Commonwealth,  or  of  the  French  Rev- 
olution,—  will  answer  the  purpose.  Much  more 
depends  upon  the  method  of  instruction  than  upon 
the  choice  of  a  topic.  Finally,  a  minister  ought  to 
have  gained  in  youth  a  good  knowledge  of  at  least 
one  branch  of  natural  history,  that  his  powers  of 
accurate  observation  and  description  may  be  culti- 
vated, and  that  he  may  learn  to  comprehend  the 
scientific  habit  of  mind  and  the  scientific  method 
of  study.    Keen  powers  of  observation  serve  a 

80 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

minister  as  well  as  they  serve  a  poet.  The  edu- 
cated and  the  uneducated  alike  respect  those  pow- 
ers, and  enjoy  the  fruits  of  their  exercise.  People 
will  be  delighted  to  hear  him  describe  things  which 
they  have  often  seen  but  never  noticed,  and  draw 
fresh  lessons  from  facts  they  have  always  known 
but  never  put  together.  A  sober  love  of  nature 
underlies  and  reinforces  love  to  G-od  and  love  to 
man :  these  sentiments  belong  together ;  dissociated 
they  are  impaired.  No  religious  teacher  can  avoid 
dealing  sometimes  with  the  relations  of  man  and 
God  to  nature ;  for  these  subjects  are  intensely  in- 
teresting alike  to  simple  and  to  cultivated  minds. 
The  minister  will  deal  much  more  wisely  with  these 
great  themes,  if  he  has  an  intimate  acquaintance 
with  some  small  field  in  nature's  vast  domain. 

Having  finished  the  preliminary  required  studies, 
the  candidate  for  the  ministry  is  ready  to  enter 
upon  the  advanced  studies  which  may  properly  be 
called  professional.  Since  preaching  is  to  be  his 
most  important  function,  he  will  naturally  give  a 
good  share  of  his  time  to  homiletics  and  the  prac- 
tice of  writing  and  speaking.  The  other  subjects 
which  are  now  included  under  the  comprehensive 
term  "  theology  "  or  "  divinity  "  may  be  grouped  as 
follows : 

1.  Semitic  studies — linguistic,  archaeological,  and 
historical. 

2.  New  Testament  criticism  and  exegesis. 

3.  Ecclesiastical  history. 

4.  Comparative  religion,  or  historical  religions 
compared. 

«  8i 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

5.  Psychology,  ethics,  and  the  philosophy  of  re- 
ligion. 

6.  Systematic  theology,  and  the  history  of  Chris- 
tian doctrines. 

7.  Charitable  and  reformatory  methods,  and  the 
contest  of  Christian  society  with  licentiousness,  in- 
temperance, pauperism,  and  crime. 

The  mere  enumeration  of  these  subjects  will 
satisfy  any  reasonable  person  that  if  no  more  than 
three  years  is  ordinarily  to  be  given  to  theological 
study,  election  must  be  allowed  among  the  groups, 
or  no  thorough  acquaintance  with  any  subject  will 
be  attained.  The  subjects  have  sufficient  range  to 
meet  a  great  variety  of  tastes  and  capacities :  they 
are  philological,  historical,  philosophical,  and 
practical.  Any  three  of  these  seven  groups  thor- 
oughly studied,  in  addition  to  homiletics  and  the 
preliminary  required  studies,  would  in  my  judg- 
ment give  a  far  better  training  for  the  duties  of  a 
Protestant  minister  in  our  day  than  is  now  offered 
in  any  theological  seminary  within  my  knowledge. 
It  may  be  objected  to  this  scheme  that  it  will  admit 
men  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Divinity  and  to 
the  pulpit,  who  may  never  have  studied  church 
history,  or  New  Testament  criticism,  or  even  sys- 
tematic theology.  This  result  would  be  possible, 
and  certainly  it  is  not  in  itself  desirable ;  but  let 
us  look  at  the  compensating  advantages  of  the 
system.  In  the  first  place,  let  me  urge  the  su- 
preme importance  of  making  an  exhaustive  study 
of  one  or  two  limited  subjects,  for  the  effect  of 
such  study  upon  the  whole  mental  and  moral  dis- 

82 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

position.  It  is  the  hasty  and  superficial  student 
who  is  conceited,  presumptuous,  and  rash.  The 
master  is  humble,  unassuming,  and  cautious.  Sec- 
ondly, let  me  point  out  that  theology  is  already  a 
field  so  vast  that  no  man  can  survey  it  all  within 
three  years,  even  in  the  hastiest  manner,  and  that 
it  is  daily  growing  vaster  still,  by  the  indefinite 
extension  of  some  of  its  old  subjects,  and  by  the  ad- 
dition of  new  ones.  It  is  hopeless  to  try  to  cover 
such  a  field.  Thirdly,  let  it  be  observed  that  the 
object  to  be  held  in  view  in  training  a  young  man 
for  the  ministry  is  the  imparting  of  power,  not  of 
information,  and  that  the  most  important  step  to- 
ward getting  mental  power  is  the  acquisition  of 
a  right  method  in  work  and  a  just  standard  of 
attainment.  But  a  right  method  of  work  may  be 
acquired  in  the  conscientious  study  of  any  one  of 
the  groups  into  which  I  have  roughly  divided  the 
present  subjects  in  theology ;  for  the  true  spirit  of 
research  is  the  same  in  all  fields,  namely,  the 
free,  fair,  fearless,  and  faithful  spirit  of  modern 
science. 

The  education  of  a  minister  should  not  end  with 
the  theological  school,  but  should  be  prolonged, 
like  that  of  a  teacher  or  physician,  to  the  latest 
day  of  his  life.  He  must  always  be  learning  and 
growing.  To  this  end  he  must  make  time  to  read 
and  study  every  week,  and  he  ought  to  keep  on 
hand  some  more  continuous  and  erudite  work 
than  sermon-writing.  Most  ministers  run  dry,  or 
pump  the  same  water  over  and  over  again,  like  the 
pumps  on  exhibition  at  a  fair  which  draw  only 

83 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

from  the  little  box  into  which  they  discharge. 
To  guard  against  this  danger,  the  minister  must 
draw  day  by  day  from  the  living  springs  of  liter- 
ature, science,  and  art.  The  churches  are  greatly 
responsible  for  the  desiccation  of  ministers.  They 
expect  from  the  minister  too  many  services  a  week ; 
they  swaddle  him  in  forms ;  they  look  for  pastoral 
visits;  they  give  him  insufficient  vacations;  and 
they  drive  or  entice  him  into  the  fatal  habit  of 
prolonged,  unpremeditated  speech. 

It  would  be  a  great  improvement  in  the  relation 
between  minister  and  congregation  if  the  minister 
were  frankly  allowed  sometimes  to  comment  upon 
a  fresh  book  instead  of  preaching  a  sermon,  some- 
times to  read  other  men's  sermons  instead  of  his 
own,  and  in  general  to  direct  his  hearers  to  good 
reading,  and  bring  them  to  know  something  of  the 
minds  and  works  of  the  leaders  of  the  race,  living 
and  dead.  The  wise  professor  or  teacher  thinks 
it  a  very  important  part  of  his  function  to  direct 
the  reading  of  his  pupils,  and  he  tries  to  give 
that  reading  as  wide  a  range  as  possible.  If  he 
were  forced  to  do  nothing  for  his  pupils  but  lec- 
ture to  them  himself,  he  would  feel  as  if  he  had 
been  thrown  back  into  the  middle  ages.  The 
habits  of  the  pulpit  in  this  respect  are  a  survival 
of  the  dark  times  before  printing.  Objection  may 
be  made  to  this  view,  that  the  religious  teacher, 
unlike  the  secular  teacher,  needs  but  one  book  — 
the  Bible,  to  which  indeed  the  AngHcan  Church 
would  add  the  Prayer-book.  Such  an  objector 
would  probably  think  of  a  minister  chiefly  as  a 

84 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

public  reader ;  for  if  he  admitted  the  idea  that  the 
minister  might  be  also  an  expositor  or  commenta- 
tor, there  would  immediately  arise  a  demand  for  a 
variety  of  comment  or  exposition,  and  other  books 
would  thereby  be  let  in.  The  voluminous  issues 
of  the  evangelical  religious  press  supply  the  readi- 
est answer  to  this  objection.  It  is  not  given  to 
every  able  and  well-educated  man  to  originate  much 
useful  thought;  he  also  does  good  service  who 
quotes  judiciously,  compiles  well,  and  knows  where 
to  borrow.  A  skilful  and  honest  purveyor  of  good 
mental  food  is  an  invaluable  person,  and  a  congre- 
gation ought  to  be  highly  content  if  it  discovers  in 
its  minister  the  gifts  of  a  good  purveyor. 

Finally,  the  minister  whose  education  is  to  be 
prolonged  throughout  his  life  must  have  liberty  of 
thought  and  speech.  Many  a  minister  is  half  afraid 
to  read  and  study  freely,  lest  he  should  grow  out  of 
his  decorous  clerical  garments.  The  churches  do 
not  give  their  ministers  room  enough  to  grow  in. 
They  settle  a  young  man  of  twenty-five,  fresh  from 
a  monastic  life  and  with  very  little  knowledge  of 
the  world,  and  expect  him  to  announce  a  set  of 
opinions  on  the  greatest  subjects  of  human  specu- 
lation and  experience,  which  he  is  to  hold  to  during 
life.  For  changes  of  opinion  on  points  which 
no  discreet  and  impartial  person  would  consider 
essential  to  Christian  character  or  right  living,  a 
minister  finds  himself  obliged  to  leave  one  de- 
nomination and  seek  refuge  in  another,  or  to  leave 
one  church  and  go  into  another ;  and  every  change 
is  cause  of  reproach  and  offense.  Other  learned 
6*  85 


On  the  Education  of  Ministers 

professions  are  not  so  hampered,  and  if  the  Prot- 
estant ministry  is  to  hold  its  own  in  the  modern 
world,  it  must  have,  and  be  believed  to  have,  free- 
dom of  growth.  Whether  the  creeds  and  confes- 
sions of  the  Protestant  sects  are  to  be  recast  or  not 
by  councils  or  synods,  no  one  can  tell,  and  it  is  not 
very  important  to  inquire ;  for  the  needed  liberty 
may  be  procured  through  the  quiet  action  of  single 
churches,  or  of  small  councils  and  local  conven- 
tions, quite  as  well  as  by  more  general  action. 
When  the  Protestant  churches  clearly  perceive 
that  creed-stretching  and  creed-blinking  are  in  the 
eyes  of  the  immense  majority  of  intelligent  laymen 
demoralizing  and  contemptible  practices,  they  will 
find  some  remedy  for  the  evil  conditions  which  fos- 
ter these  practices.  Their  own  history  may  well 
incline  them  to  accord  to  their  ministers  some 
reasonable  right  of  private  judgment. 


86 


WHAT  IS  A  LIBERAL  EDUCATION? 

The  "Century,"  June,  1884 


WHAT  IS  A  LIBERAL  EDUCATION?' 


THE  general  growth  of  knowledge  and  the  rise 
of  new  literatures,  arts,  and  sciences  during 
the  past  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  have  made  it 
necessary  to  define  anew  liberal  education,  and 
hence  to  enlarge  the  signification  of  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts,  which  is  the  customary  evidence 
of  a  liberal  education.  Already  the  meaning  of 
this  ancient  degree  has  quietly  undergone  many 
serious  modifications ;  it  ought  now  to  be  funda- 
mentally and  openly  changed. 

The  course  of  study  which  terminates  in  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  ordinarily  covers  from 
seven  to  ten  years,  of  which  four  are  spent  in  col- 
lege and  three  to  six  at  school;  and  this  long 
course  is,  for  my  present  purpose,  to  be  considered 
as  a  whole.  I  wish  to  demonstrate,  first,  that  the 
number  of  school  and  college  studies  admissible 
with  equal  weight  or  rank  for  this  highly  valued 

1  This  paper  was  read  on  the  tution  which  from  its  establish- 
22d  of  February  last  before  the  ment  in  1876  has  effectually  pro- 
members  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  moted  many  of  the  reforms  herein 
University  at  Baltimore,  an  insti-  advocated. 

89 


fVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

degree  needs  to  be  much  enlarged ;  secondly,  that 
among  admissible  subjects  a  considerable  range  of 
choice  should  be  allowed  from  an  earlier  age  than 
that  at  which  choice  is  now  generally  permitted ; 
and,  thirdly,  that  the  existing  order  of  studies 
should  be  changed  in  important  respects.  The 
phrase  "  studies  admissible  with  equal  weight  or 
rank "  requires  some  explanation.  I  use  it  to  de- 
scribe subjects  which  are  taught  with  equal  care 
and  completeness,  are  supported  by  the  same  pre- 
scriptions, and  win  for  their  respective  adherents 
equal  admission  to  academic  competitions,  distinc- 
tions, and  rewards,  and  equal  access  to  the  tradi- 
tional goal  of  a  liberal  education,  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts.  Coordinate  studies  must  be 
on  an  equal  footing  in  all  respects :  of  two  studies, 
if  one  is  required  and  the  other  elective,  if  one  is 
taught  elaborately  and  fully  and  the  other  only 
in  its  elements,  if  honors  and  scholarships  may  be 
obtained  through  one  and  not  through  the  other, 
if  one  may  be  counted  toward  the  valuable  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Arts  and  the  other  only  toward 
the  very  inferior  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  or 
Bachelor  of  Philosophy,  the  two  studies  are  not 
coordinate — they  have  not  the  same  academic 
weight  or  rank. 

The  three  principal  propositions  just  enunciated 
lead  to  consequences  which  at  first  sight  are  repul- 
sive to  most  men  educated  in  the  existing  system. 
For  example,  it  would  follow  from  them  that  chil- 
dren might  not  receive  the  training  which  their 
fathers  received ;  that  young  men  educated  simul- 

90 


IVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

taneously  in  the  same  institutions  might  not  have 
knowledge  of  the  same  subjects,  share  precisely 
the  same  intellectual  pleasures,  or  cultivate  the 
same  tastes;  and  that  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Arts  would  cease  to  indicate  —  what  it  has  indicated 
for  nearly  three  hundred  years  —  that  every  re- 
cipient had  devoted  the  larger  part  of  his  years  of 
training  to  Latin,  Greek,  and  mathematics.  Pro- 
posals which  lead  to  such  results  inevitably  offend 
all  minds  naturally  conservative.  The  common 
belief  of  most  educated  men  in  the  indispensable- 
ness  of  the  subjects  in  which  they  were  themselves 
instructed  reinforces  the  general  conservatism  of 
mankind  in  regard  to  methods  of  education ;  and 
this  useful  conservatism  is  securely  intrenched 
behind  the  general  fact  that  anything  which  one 
generation  is  to  impart  to  the  next  through  educa- 
tional institutions  must,  as  a  rule,  be  apprehended 
with  tolerable  precision  by  a  considerable  number 
of  individuals  of  the  elder  generation.  Hence  a 
new  subject  can  force  its  way  only  very  gradually 
into  the  circle  of  the  arts  called  liberal.  For  in- 
stance, it  was  more  than  a  hundred  years  after  the 
wide-spread  revival  of  Grreek  in  Europe  before  that 
language  was  established  at  Paris  and  Oxford  as  a 
regular  constituent  in  the  academic  curriculum; 
and  physics  and  chemistry  are  not  yet  fully  ad- 
mitted to  that  curriculum,  although  Robert  Boyle 
published  his  "New  Experiments  touching  the 
Spring  of  the  Air"  in  1660,  Lavoisier  analyzed 
water  in  1783,  Galvani  discovered  animal  electricity 
in  1790,  and  John  Dalton  published  his  "New 

QI 


PVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

System  of  Chemical  Philosophy  "  in  1808.  Indeed, 
so  stout  and  insurmountable  seem  the  barriers 
against  progress  in  education,  as  we  look  forward, 
that  we  are  rather  startled  on  looking  back  to  see 
how  short  a  time  what  is  has  been. 

It  is  the  received  opinion  that  mathematics  is  an 
indispensable  and  universal  constituent  of  educa- 
tion, possessing  the  venerable  sanction  of  immemo- 
rial use ;  but  when  we  examine  closely  the  matters 
now  taught  as  mathematics  in  this  country,  we 
find  that  they  are  all  recent  inventions,  of  a  char- 
acter so  distinct  from  the  Greek  geometry  and 
conic  sections  which  with  arithmetic  represented 
mathematics  down  to  the  seventeenth  century,  that 
they  do  not  furnish  the  same  mental  training  at 
all.  As  WheweU  pointed  out  forty  years  ago, 
modern  mathematics  —  algebra,  analytic  geometry, 
the  differential  and  integral  calculi,  analytical 
mechanics,  and  quaternions  —  has  almost  put  out 
of  sight  the  ancient  form  of  mathematical  science. 
Leibnitz  published  his  "  Rules  of  the  Differential 
Calculus  "in  1684,  Newton  his  "Method  of  Flux- 
ions "  in  1711,  Euler  his  "  Institutiones  Calculi  Inte- 
gralis  "  in  1768-70 ;  but  Lagrange,  Laplace,  Monge, 
Legendre,  Gauss,  and  Hamilton,  the  chief  promul- 
gators of  what  we  now  call  mathematical  science, 
all  lived  into  or  in  this  century.  The  name  of  this 
well-established  constituent  of  the  course  of  study 
required  for  the  baccalaureate  is  old,  but  the  thing 
itself  is  new.  A  brief  citation  from  the  conclusion 
of  Whe well's  prolix  discussion  of  the  educational 
value  of  mathematics,  in  his  treatise  entitled  "  Of 

Q2 


What  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

a  Liberal  Education,"  will  explain  and  fortify  the 
statement  that  the  mental  discipline  furnished  by 
the  mathematics  of  Euclid  and  Archimedes  was 
essentially  different  from  that  furnished  by  the 
analytical  mathematics  now  almost  exclusively  in 
use: 

On  aU  these  accounts,  then,  I  venture  to  assert,  that 
while  we  hold  mathematics  to  be  of  inestimable  value  as 
a  permanent  study  by  which  the  reason  of  man  is  to  be 
educated,  we  must  hold  also  that  the  geometrical  forms 
of  mathematics  must  be  especially  preserved  and  main- 
tained, as  essentially  requisite  for  this  office ;  that  analyt- 
ical mathematics  can  in  no  way  answer  this  purpose, 
and,  if  the  attempt  be  made  so  to  employ  it,  will  not  only 
be  worthless,  but  highly  prejudicial  to  men's  minds. 

The  modern  analytical  mathematics,  thus  con- 
demned by  Whewell,  is  practically  the  only  mathe- 
matics now  in  common  use  in  the  United  States. 

Again,  it  is  obvious  that  the  spirit  and  method 
in  which  Latin  has  been  for  the  most  part  studied 
during  the  present  century  are  very  different  from 
the  spirit  and  method  in  which  it  was  studied  in 
the  preceding  centuries.  During  this  century  it 
has  been  taught  as  a  dead  language  (except  per- 
haps in  parts  of  Italy  and  Hungary),  whereas  it 
used  to  be  taught  as  a  living  language,  the  com- 
mon speech  of  all  scholars,  both  lay  and  clerical. 
Those  advocates  of  classical  learning  who  maintain 
that  a  dead  language  must  have  more  disciplinary 
virtue  than  a  living  one  would  hardly  have  been 
satisfied  with  the  prevailing  modes  of  teaching  and 
learning  Latin  in  any  century  before  our  own.    At 

93 


PVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education} 

any  rate,  it  was  a  different  discipline  which  Latin 
supplied  when  young  scholars  learned  not  only  to 
read  it,  but  to  write  and  speak  it  with  fluency. 

I  venture  to  inquire  next  how  long  Greek  has 
held  its  present  place  in  the  accepted  scheme  of 
liberal  education.  Although  the  study  of  Greek 
took  root  in  Italy  as  early  as  1400,  and  was  rapidly 
diffused  there  after  the  fall  of  Constantinople  in  1453, 
it  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  become  established  at 
Paris  as  a  subject  worthy  the  attention  of  scholars 
before  1458,  or  at  Oxford  before  the  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  At  Paris,  for  many  years  after 
1458,  Greek  was  taught  with  indifferent  success, 
and  its  professors,  who  were  mostly  foreigners, 
were  excluded  from  the  privileges  of  regency  in 
the  University.  Indeed,  the  subject  seems  to  have 
long  been  in  the  condition  of  what  we  should  now 
call  an  extra  study,  and  its  teachers  were  much  in 
the  position  of  modern-language  teachers  in  an 
American  college,  which  does  not  admit  them  to 
the  faculty.  Grocyn,  Linacre,  and  Latimer,  who 
learned  Greek  at  Florence,  introduced  the  study  at 
Oxford  in  the  last  years  of  the  fifteenth  century; 
but  Anthony  Wood  says  that  Grocyn  gave  lectures 
of  his  own  free  will,  and  without  any  emolument. 
It  is  certain  that  in  1578  the  instruction  in  Greek 
which  was  given  to  undergraduates  at  Cambridge 
started  with  the  elements  of  the  language ;  and  it 
is  altogether  probable  that  Greek  had  no  real  hold 
in  the  English  grammar  schools  until  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  statutes  which  were 
adopted  by  the  University  of  Paris  in  the  year 

94 


What  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

1600  define  the  studies  in  arts  to  be  Latin,  Greek, 
Aristotle's  philosophy,  and  Euclid ;  and  they  make 
Greek  one  of  the  requirements  for  admission  to 
the  School  of  Law.  It  took  two  hundred  years, 
then,  for  the  Greek  language  and  literature  grad- 
ually to  displace  in  great  part  the  scholastic  meta- 
physics which,  with  scholastic  theology,  had  been 
for  generations  regarded  as  the  main  staple  of  lib- 
eral education ;  and  this  displacement  was  accom- 
plished only  after  the  same  sort  of  tedious  struggle 
by  which  the  new  knowledges  of  the  eighteenth 
and  nineteenth  centuries  are  now  winning  their 
way  to  academic  recognition.  The  revived  classi- 
cal literature  was  vigorously  and  sincerely  opposed 
as  frivolous,  heterodox,  and  useless  for  discipline ; 
just  as  natural  history,  chemistry,  physics,  and 
modern  literatures  are  now  opposed.  Precisely 
the  same  arguments  were  used  by  the  conserva- 
tives of  that  day  which  are  brought  forward  by 
the  conservatives  of  to-day,  only  they  were  used 
against  classical  literature  then,  while  now  they 
are  used  in  its  support.  Let  it  not  be  imagined 
that  the  scholastic  metaphysics  and  theology,  which 
lost  most  of  the  ground  won  by  Greek,  were  in  the 
eyes  of  the  educated  men  of  the  twelfth  to  the  six- 
teenth century  at  all  what  they  seem  to  us.  They 
were  the  chief  delight  of  the  wise,  learned,  and 
pious ;  they  were  the  best  mental  food  of  at  least 
twelve  generations;  and  they  aroused  in  Europe 
an  enthusiasm  for  study  which  has  hardly  been 
equaled  in  later  centuries.  When  Abelard  taught  at 
Paris  early  in  the  twelfth  century,  thousands  of  pu- 

95 


PVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

pils  flocked  around  his  chair ;  when  the  Dominican 
Thomas  Aquinas  wrote  his  "  Summa  Theologise," 
and  lectured  at  Paris,  Bologna,  Rome,  and  Naples, 
in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  he  had  a 
prodigious  following,  and  for  three  centuries  his 
fame  and  influence  grew;  when  the  Franciscan 
Duns  Scotus  lectured  at  Oxford  at  the  beginning 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  resort  of  students 
to  the  University  seems  to  have  been  far  greater 
than  it  has  ever  been  since.  We  may  be  sure  that 
these  wonders  were  not  wrought  with  dust  or 
chaff.  Nevertheless,  the  scholastic  theology  and 
metaphysics  were  in  large  measure  displaced ;  and 
for  three  hundred  years  the  classical  literatures 
have  reigned  in  their  stead. 

Authentic  history  records  an  earlier  change  of 
a  fundamental  sort  in  the  list  of  arts  called  liberal, 
and  consequently  in  the  recognized  scheme  of  lib- 
eral education.  When  Erasmus  was  a  student, 
that  is,  in  the  last  third  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
before  Greek  had  been  admitted  to  the  circle  of 
the  liberal  arts,  the  regular  twelve  years'  course 
of  study  included,  and  had  long  included,  reading, 
arithmetic,  grammar,  syntax,  poetry,  rhetoric, 
metaphysics,  and  theology,  all  studied  in  Latin; 
and  of  these  subjects  metaphysics  and  theology 
occupied  half  of  the  whole  time,  and  all  of  the 
university  period.  But  in  the  eleventh  century, 
before  Abelard  founded  scholastic  theology,  the 
authoritative  list  of  liberal  studies  was  quite  dif- 
ferent.   It  was  given  in  the  single  line : 

Lingua,  tropus,  ratio,  numerus,  tonus,  angulus,  astra. 

96 


IVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

Most  students  were  content  with  the  first  three  — 
grammar,  rhetoric,  and  logic ;  a  few  also  pursued 
arithmetic,  music,  geometry,  and  astronomy,  if 
these  grave  names  may  be  properly  applied  to  the 
strange  mixtures  of  fact  and  fancy  which  in  ob- 
scure Latin  versions  of  Grreek  and  Arabian  ori- 
ginals passed  for  science.  It  was  this  privileged 
circle  which  scholastic  divinity  successfully  in- 
vaded at  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  the 
success  of  the  invasion  being  probably  due  to  the 
fact  that  religion  was  then  the  only  thing  which 
could  be  systematically  studied. 

This  hasty  retrospect  shows,  first,  that  some  of 
the  studies  now  commonly  called  liberal  have  not 
long  held  their  present  preeminence ;  and,  secondly, 
that  new  learning  has  repeatedly  forced  its  way, 
in  times  past,  to  full  academic  standing,  in  spite 
of  the  opposition  of  the  conservative,  and  of 
the  keener  resistance  of  established  teachers  and 
learned  bodies,  whose  standing  is  always  sup- 
posed to  be  threatened  by  the  rise  of  new  sciences. 
History  teaches  boldness  in  urging  the  claims  of 
modern  literatures  and  sciences  to  full  recognition 
as  liberal  arts. 

The  first  subject  which,  as  I  conceive,  is  entitled 
to  recognition  as  of  equal  academic  value  or  rank 
with  any  subject  now  most  honored  is  the  English 
language  and  literature.  When  Greek  began  to 
revive  in  Europe,  English  was  just  acquiring  a 
literary  form ;  but  when  Grreek  had  won  its  present 
rank  among  the  liberal  arts,  Shakspere  had  risen, 
the  English  language  was  formed,  and  English 

'  97 


fVbat  Is  a  Liberal  Education? 

literature  was  soon  to  become  the  greatest  of 
modern  literatures.  How  does  it  stand  now,  with 
its  immense  array  of  poets,  philosophers,  histo- 
rians, commentators,  critics,  satirists,  dramatists, 
novelists,  and  orators  ?  It  cannot  be  doubted  that 
English  literature  is  beyond  all  comparison  the 
amplest,  most  various,  and  most  splendid  literature 
which  the  world  has  seen ;  and  it  is  enough  to  say 
of  the  English  language  that  it  is  the  language  of 
that  literature,  dreek  literature  compares  with 
English  as  Homer  compares  with  Shakspere,  that 
is,  as  infantile  with  adult  civilization.  It  may  fur- 
ther be  said  of  the  English  language  that  it  is  the 
native  tongue  of  nations  which  are  preeminent  in 
the  world  by  force  of  character,  enterprise,  and 
wealth,  and  whose  political  and  social  institutions 
have  a  higher  moral  interest  and  greater  promise 
than  any  which  mankind  has  hitherto  invented. 
To  the  original  creations  of  English  genius  are  to 
be  added  translations  into  English  of  all  the  mas- 
terpieces of  other  literatures,  sacred  and  profane. 
It  is  a  very  rare  scholar  who  has  not  learned  much 
more  about  the  Jews,  the  Greeks,  or  the  Romans 
through  English  than  through  Hebrew,  Greek,  or 
Latin. 

And  now,  with  all  this  wonderful  treasure  within 
reach  of  our  youth,  what  is  the  position  of  Amer- 
ican schools  and  colleges  in  regard  to  teaching 
English?  Has  English  literature  the  foremost 
place  in  the  programs  of  schools  ?  By  no  means ; 
at  best  only  a  subordinate  place,  and  in  many 
schools  no  place  at  all.    Does  English  take  equal 

q8 


IVbai  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

rank  with  Greek  or  Latin  in  our  colleges  ?  By  no 
means ;  not  in  the  number  and  rank  of  the  teach- 
ers, or  in  the  consideration  in  which  the  subject  is 
held  by  faculty  and  students,  or  in  the  time  which 
may  be  devoted  to  it  by  a  candidate  for  a  degree. 
Until  within  a  few  years  the  American  colleges 
made  no  demand  upon  candidates  for  admission 
in  regard  to  knowledge  of  English ;  and  now  that 
some  colleges  make  a  small  requirement  in  Eng- 
lish, the  chief  result  of  the  examinations  is  to 
demonstrate  the  woeful  ignorance  of  their  own 
language  and  literature  which  prevails  among  the 
picked  youth  of  the  country.  Shall  we  be  told,  as 
usual,  that  the  best  way  to  learn  English  is  to 
study  Latin  and  Greek?  The  answer  is  that  the 
facts  do  not  corroborate  this  improbable  hypothe- 
sis. American  youth  in  large  numbers  study 
Latin  and  Greek,  but  do  not  thereby  learn  Eng- 
lish. Moreover,  this  hypothesis  is  obviously  in- 
applicable to  the  literatures.  Shall  we  also  be 
told,  as  usual,  that  no  linguistic  discipline  can  be 
got  out  of  the  study  of  the  native  language? 
How,  then,  was  the  Greek  mind  trained  in  lan- 
guage ?  Shall  we  be  told  that  knowledge  of  Eng- 
lish literature  should  be  picked  up  without  syste- 
matic effort  ?  The  answer  is,  first,  that  as  a  matter 
of  fact  this  knowledge  is  not  picked  up  by  Ameri- 
can youth;  and,  secondly,  that  there  never  was 
any  good  reason  to  suppose  that  it  would  be,  the 
acquisition  of  a  competent  knowledge  of  English 
literature  being  not  an  easy  but  a  laborious  under- 
taking for  an  average  youth  —  not  a  matter  of 

99 


IV bat  is  a  Liberal  Educatimt? 

entertaining  reading,  but  of  serious  study.  In- 
deed, there  is  no  subject  in  which  competent  gui- 
dance and  systematic  instruction  are  of  greater 
value.  For  ten  years  past  Harvard  University 
has  been  trying,  first,  to  stimulate  the  preparatory 
schools  to  give  attention  to  English,  and,  secondly, 
to  develop  and  improve  its  own  instruction  in 
that  department ;  but  its  success  has  thus  far  been 
very  moderate.  So  little  attention  is  paid  to  Eng- 
lish at  the  preparatory  schools  that  half  of  the 
time,  labor,  and  money  which  the  University 
spends  upon  English  must  be  devoted  to  the  mere 
elements  of  the  subject.  Moreover,  this  very  year 
at  Harvard  less  than  half  as  much  instruction,  of 
proper  university  grade,  is  offered  in  English  as  in 
Greek  or  in  Latin.  The  experience  of  all  other 
colleges  and  universities  resembles  in  this  respect 
that  of  Harvard. 

This  comparative  neglect  of  the  greatest  of  lit- 
eratures in  American  schools  and  colleges  is  cer- 
tainly a  remarkable  phenomenon.  How  is  it  to  be 
explained  ?  First,  by  the  relative  newness  of  this 
language  and  literature :  it  requires  two  or  three 
hundred  years  to  introduce  new  intellectual  sta- 
ples; secondly,  by  the  real  difficulty  of  teaching 
English  well  —  a  difficulty  which  has  only  of  late 
years  been  overcome ;  and,  thirdly,  by  the  dazzling 
splendor  of  the  revived  Greek  and  Latin  literatures 
when  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  they 
broke  upon  the  mind  of  western  Europe.  Through 
the  force  of  custom,  tradition,  inherited  tastes,  and 
transmitted  opinions,  the  educational  practices  of 

lOO 


What  is  a  Liberal  Education} 

to-day  are  still  cast  in  the  molds  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  The  scholars  of  that  time  saw  a  great 
light  which  shone  out  of  darkness,  and  they  wor- 
shiped it ;  and  we,  their  descendants  in  the  ninth 
generation,  upon  whom  greater  lights  have  arisen, 
still  worship  at  the  same  shrine.  Let  us  continue 
to  worship  there ;  but  let  us  pay  at  least  equal 
honors  to  the  glorious  lights  which  have  since 
been  kindled. 

The  next  subjects  for  which  I  claim  a  position 
of  academic  equality  with  Gfreek,  Latin,  and  math- 
ematics are  French  and  Grerman.  This  claim  rests 
not  on  the  usefulness  of  these  languages  to  cou- 
riers, tourists,  or  commercial  travelers,  and  not  on 
their  merit  as  languages,  but  on  the  magnitude 
and  worth  of  the  literatures,  and  on  the  unques- 
tionable fact  that  facility  in  reading  these  lan- 
guages is  absolutely  indispensable  to  a  scholar, 
whatever  may  be  his  department  of  study.  Until 
within  one  hundred  or  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years,  scholarship  had  a  common  language,  the 
Latin ;  so  that  scholars  of  all  the  European  nation- 
alities had  a  perfect  means  of  communication, 
whether  in  speaking,  writing,  or  printing.  But 
the  cultivation  of  the  spirit  of  nationality  and  the 
development  of  national  literatures  have  brought 
about  the  abandonment  of  Latin  as  the  common 
language  of  learning,  and  imposed  on  every  stu- 
dent who  would  go  beyond  the  elements  of  his 
subject  the  necessity  of  acquiring  at  least  a  read- 
ing knowledge  of  French  and  German,  besides 
Latin.    Indeed,  the  advanced  student  of  our  day 


7* 


lOI 


What  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

can  dispense  with  Latin  better  than  with  French, 
German,  or  English ;  for,  although  the  antiquated 
publications  in  any  science  may  be  printed  in 
Latin,  the  recent  (which  will  probably  contain  all 
that  is  best  in  the  old)  will  be  found  printed  in  one 
of  these  modern  languages.  I  cannot  state  too 
strongly  the  indispensableness  of  both  French 
and  German  to  the  American  or  English  student. 
Without  these  languages  he  will  be  much  worse 
off  in  respect  to  communicating  with  his  contem- 
poraries than  was  the  student  of  the  seventeenth 
century  who  could  read  and  speak  Latin;  for 
through  Latin  the  student  of  the  year  1684  could 
put  himself  into  direct  communication  with  all 
contemporary  learning.  So  far  as  I  know,  there 
is  no  difference  of  opinion  among  American  schol- 
ars as  to  the  need  of  mastering  these  two  lan- 
guages in  youth.  The  philologists,  archasologists, 
metaphysicians,  physicians,  physicists,  naturalists, 
chemists,  economists,  engineers,  architects,  artists, 
and  musicians,  all  agree  that  a  knowledge  of  these 
languages  is  indispensable  to  the  intelligent  pur- 
suit of  any  one  of  their  respective  subjects  beyond 
its  elements.  Every  college  professor  who  gives 
a  thorough  course  of  instruction  —  no  matter  in 
what  department  —  finds  himself  obliged  to  refer 
his  pupils  to  French  and  German  authorities.  In 
the  reference  library  of  any  modern  laboratory, 
whether  of  chemistry,  physics,  physiology,  pa- 
thology, botany,  or  zoology,  a  large  proportion  of 
the  books  will  be  found  to  be  in  French  or  Ger- 
man.   The  working  library  of  the  philologist,  ar- 

I02 


IVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

chsBologist,  or  historian  teaches  the  same  lesson. 
Without  a  knowledge  of  these  two  languages  it  is 
impossible  to  get  at  the  experience  of  the  world 
upon  any  modern  industrial,  social,  or  financial 
question,  or  to  master  any  profession  which  de- 
pends upon  applications  of  modern  science.  I 
urge  no  utilitarian  argument,  but  rest  the  claims 
of  French  and  Glerman  for  admission  to  complete 
academic  equality  on  the  copiousness  and  merit  of 
the  literatures,  and  the  indispensableness  of  the 
languages  to  all  scholars. 

Such  being  the  reasons  for  teaching  French  and 
German  to  all  young  scholars  at  an  early  stage  of 
their  training,  what  is  the  condition  of  these  lan- 
guages at  American  schools  and  colleges?  For 
answer  to  this  question  I  will  describe  the  condi' 
tion  of  instruction  in  French  and  German  at  Yale 
College,  an  institution,  I  need  not  say,  which  holds 
a  leading  position  among  American  colleges.  No 
knowledge  of  either  French  or  German  is  required 
for  admission  to  Yale  College,  and  no  instruction  is 
provided  in  either  language  before  the  beginning 
of  the  Junior  year.  In  that  year  German  must  be 
and  French  may  be  studied,  each  four  hours  a 
week ;  in  the  Senior  year  either  language  may  be 
studied  four  hours  a  week.  In  other  words,  Yale 
College  does  not  suggest  that  the  preparatory 
schools  ought  to  teach  either  French  or  German, 
does  not  give  its  students  the  opportunity  of  ac- 
quiring these  languages  in  season  to  use  them  in 
other  studies,  and  does  not  offer  them  any  ade- 
quate opportunity  of  becoming  acquainted  with 

103 


PVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

the  literature  of  either  language  before  they  take 
the  bachelor's  degree.  Could  we  have  stronger 
evidence  than  this  of  the  degraded  condition  of 
French  and  German  in  the  mass  of  our  schools 
and  colleges  ?  A  few  colleges  have  lately  been  de- 
manding a  small  amount  of  French  or  German  for 
admission,  and  a  few  schools  have  met  this  very 
moderate  demand;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  Ameri- 
can boys  who  go  to  college  devote  from  two  to 
three  solid  years  to  Greek  and  Latin,  but  study 
French  and  German  scarcely  at  all  while  at  school, 
and  at  college  only  for  a  part  of  the  time  during 
the  later  half  of  the  course.  The  opportunities  and 
facilities  for  studying  Greek  and  Latin  in  our  schools 
and  colleges  are  none  too  great;  but  surely  the  op- 
portunities and  facilities  for  studying  French  and 
German  are  far  too  small.  The  modem  languages 
should  be  put  on  an  equality  with  the  ancient. 

The  next  subject  which  demands  an  entirely 
different  position  from  that  it  now  occupies  in 
American  schools  and  colleges  is  history.  K  any 
study  is  liberal  and  liberalizing,  it  is  the  modern 
study  of  history  —  the  study  of  the  passions,  opin- 
ions, beliefs,  arts,  laws,  and  institutions  of  different 
races  or  communities,  and  of  the  joys,  sufferings, 
conflicts,  and  achievements  of  mankind.  Phi- 
lology and  polite  literature  arrogate  the  title  of  the 
"  humanities " ;  but  what  study  can  so  justly 
claim  that  honorable  title  as  the  study  which  deals 
with  the  actual  experience  on  this  earth  of  social 
and  progressive  man?  What  kind  of  knowledge 
can  be  so  useful  to  a  legislator,  administrator, 

104 


IVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

journalist,  publicist,  philanthropist,  or  philosopher 
as  a  well-ordered  knowledge  of  history?  If  the 
humanity  or  liberality  of  a  study  depends  upon  its 
power  to  enlarge  the  intellectual  and  moral  inter- 
ests of  the  student,  quicken  his  sympathies,  impel 
him  to  the  side  of  truth  and  virtue,  and  make  him 
loathe  falsehood  and  vice,  no  study  can  be  more 
humane  or  liberal  than  history.  These  being  the 
just  claims  of  history  in  general,  the  history  of 
the  community  and  nation  to  which  we  belong 
has  a  still  more  pressing  claim  upon  our  attention. 
That  study  shows  the  young  the  springs  of  public 
honor  and  dishonor ;  sets  before  them  the  national 
failings,  weaknesses,  and  sins;  warns  them  against 
future  dangers  by  exhibiting  the  losses  and  suffer- 
ings of  the  past ;  enshrines  in  their  hearts  the  na- 
tional heroes;  and  strengthens  in  them  the  precious 
love  of  country.  One  would  naturally  suppose  that 
the  history  of  the  United  States  and  England,  at 
least,  would  hold  an  important  place  in  the  pro- 
grams of  American  schools  and  colleges,  and 
that  no  subject  would  occupy  a  more  dignilSed 
position  in  the  best  colleges  and  universities  than 
history  in  respect  to  the  number  and  rank  of  its 
teachers.  The  facts  do  not  accord  with  this  natural 
supposition.  The  great  majority  of  American  col- 
leges (there  are  nearly  four  hundred  of  them)  make 
no  requirements  in  history  for  admission,  and  have 
no  teacher  of  history  whatever.  Lest  it  be  ima- 
gined that  this  can  be  true  only  of  inferior  colleges, 
I  will  mention  that  in  so  old  and  well-established  a 
college  as  Dartmouth  there  is  no  teacher  of  history, 

105 


IVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

whether  professor,  tutor,  or  temporary  instructor ; 
while  in  so  excellent  an  institution  as  Princeton 
there  is  only  one  professor  of  history  against  three 
of  Greek,  and  this  single  professor  includes  politi- 
cal science  with  history  in  his  teaching.  No  insti- 
tution which  calls  itself  a  college  expects  to  do 
without  a  professor  of  Greek,  or  of  Latin,  or  of 
mathematics ;  but  nearly  all  of  them  do  without  a 
teacher  of  history.  The  example  of  the  colleges 
governs  the  preparatory  schools.  When  young 
men  who  are  interested  in  historical  study  ask  me 
if  it  would  be  advisable  for  them  to  fit  themselves 
to  teach  history  for  a  livelihood,  I  am  obliged  to 
say  that  it  would  be  the  height  of  imprudence  on 
their  part,  there  being  only  an  infinitesimal  de- 
mand for  competent  teachers  of  history  in  our 
whole  country.  This  humiliated  condition  of  his- 
tory is  only  made  the  more  conspicuous  by  the  old 
practice,  which  still  obtains  at  some  colleges  (Har- 
vard College,  for  instance),  of  demanding  from  all 
candidates  for  admission  a  small  amount  of  Greek 
and  Roman  history — as  much  as  a  clever  boy 
could  commit  to  memory  in  three  or  four  days. 
One  hardly  knows  which  most  to  wonder  at  in  this 
requirement,  the  selection  of  topic  or  the  minute- 
ness of  the  amount.  Is  it  not  plain  that  the  great 
subject  of  history  holds  no  proper  place  in  Ameri- 
can education  ? 

Closely  allied  to  the  study  of  history  is  the  study 
of  the  new  science  called  political  economy,  or 
public  economics.  I  say  the  new  science,  because 
Smith's  "Wealth  of  Nations"  was  not  published 

io6 


IVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

until  1776;  Malthus's  "Essay  on  the  Principle  of 
Population  "  appeared  only  in  1798 ;  and  Ricardo's 
"  Political  Economy  and  Taxation,"  in  1817.  The 
subject  is  related  to  history,  inasmuch  as  it  gleans 
its  most  important  facts  by  the  study  of  the  insti- 
tutions and  industrial  and  social  conditions  of  the 
past;  it  is  the  science  of  wealth  in  so  far  as  it  deals 
with  the  methods  by  which  private  or  national 
wealth  is  accumulated,  protected,  enjoyed,  and 
distributed ;  and  it  is  connected  with  ethics  in  that 
it  deals  with  social  theories  and  the  moral  effects 
of  economic  conditions.  In  some  of  its  aspects  it 
were  better  called  the  science  of  the  health  of  na- 
tions ;  for  its  results  show  how  nations  might  hap- 
pily grow  and  live  in  conformity  with  physical  and 
moral  laws.  It  is  by  far  the  most  complex  and 
difi&cult  of  the  sciences  of  which  modern  education 
has  to  take  account,  and  therefore  should  not  be 
introduced  too  early  into  the  course  of  study  for 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts ;  but  when  it  is  in- 
troduced, enough  of  it  should  be  offered  to  the  stu- 
dent to  enable  him  to  get  more  than  a  smattering. 

When  we  consider  how  formidable  are  the  in- 
dustrial, social,  and  political  problems  with  which 
the  next  generations  must  grapple, — when  we  ob- 
serve how  inequalities  of  condition  increase,  not- 
withstanding the  general  acceptance  of  theories 
of  equality;  how  population  irresistibly  tends  to 
huge  agglomerations,  in  spite  of  demonstrations 
that  such  agglomerations  are  physically  and  mor- 
ally unhealthy;  how  the  universal  thirst  for  the 
enjoyments  of  life  grows  hotter  and  hotter,  and  is 

107 


IVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

not  assuaged ;  how  the  relations  of  government  to 
society  become  constantly  more  and  more  compli- 
cated, while  the  governing  capacity  of  men  does 
not  seem  to  increase  proportionally ;  and  how  free 
institutions  commit  to  masses  of  men  the  deter- 
mination of  public  policy  in  regard  to  economic 
problems  of  immense  difficulty,  such  as  the  prob- 
lems concerning  tariffs,  banking,  currency,  the 
domestic  carrying  trade,  foreign  commerce,  and 
the  incidence  of  taxes, — we  can  hardly  fail  to  ap- 
preciate the  importance  of  offering  to  large  num- 
bers of  American  students  ample  facilities  for 
learning  all  that  is  known  of  economic  science. 

How  does  the  ordinary  provision  made  in  our 
colleges  for  the  study  of  political  economy  meet 
this  need  of  students  and  of  the  community? 
That  I  may  not  understate  this  provision,  I  will 
describe  the  provisions  made  at  Columbia  College, 
an  institution  which  is  said  to  be  the  richest  of  our 
colleges,  and  at  Brown  University,  one  of  the  most 
substantial  of  the  New  England  colleges.  At 
Columbia,  Juniors  must  attend  two  exercises  a 
week  in  political  economy  for  half  the  year,  and 
Seniors  may  elect  that  subject  for  two  hours  a 
week  throughout  the  year.  At  Brown,  Juniors 
may  elect  political  economy  two  hours  a  week  for 
half  the  year,  and  Seniors  have  a  like  privilege. 
The  provision  of  instruction  in  Greek  at  Brown  is 
five  and  a  half  times  as  much  as  the  provision 
in  political  economy,  and  seven  elevenths  of  the 
G-reek  is  required  of  all  students,  besides  the  Greek 
which  was  required  at  school;  but  none  of  the 

io8 


M^bat  IS  a  Liberal  Education? 

political  economy  is  required.  Columbia  College 
makes  a  further  provision  of  instruction  in  his- 
tory, law,  and  political  science  for  students  who 
are  able  to  devote  either  one  or  two  years  to  these 
subjects  after  taking  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts, 
or  who  are  willing  to  procure  one  year's  instruction 
in  these  subjects  by  accepting  the  degree  of  Bach- 
elor of  Philosophy  instead  of  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Arts  —  a  very  high  price  to  pay  for  this  one 
year's  privilege.  If  this  is  the  state  of  things  in 
two  leading  Eastern  colleges  with  regard  to  in- 
struction in  political  economy,  what  should  we  find 
to  be  the  average  provision  in  American  colleges  ? 
We  should  find  it  poor  in  quality  and  insignificant 
in  amount.  In  view  of  this  comparative  neglect 
of  a  subject  all-important  to  our  own  generation 
and  to  those  which  are  to  follow,  one  is  tempted  to 
join  in  the  impatient  cry.  Are  our  young  men  being 
educated  for  the  work  of  the  twentieth  century 
or  of  the  seventeenth  ?  There  can  be  no  pretense 
that  political  economy  is  an  easy  subject,  or  that 
it  affords  no  mental  discipline.  Indeed,  it  requires 
such  exactness  of  statement,  such  accurate  weigh- 
ing of  premises,  and  such  closeness  of  reasoning, 
that  many  young  men  of  twenty,  who  have  been 
disciplined  by  the  study  of  Greek,  Latin,  and 
mathematics  for  six  or  eight  years,  find  that  it 
tasks  their  utmost  powers.  Neither  can  it  be  justly 
called  a  material  or  utilitarian  subject;  for  it  is 
full  of  grave  moral  problems,  and  deals  with  many 
questions  of  public  honor  and  duty. 
The  last  subject  for  which  I  claim  admission  to 
109 


kVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

the  magic  circle  of  the  liberal  arts  is  natural  sci- 
ence. All  the  subjects  which  the  sixteenth  century- 
decided  were  liberal,  and  all  the  subjects  which  I 
have  heretofore  discussed,  are  studied  in  books; 
but  natural  science  is  to  be  studied  not  in  books 
but  in  things.  The  student  of  languages,  letters, 
philosophy,  mathematics,  history,  or  political  econ- 
omy, reads  books,  or  listens  to  the  words  of  his 
teacher.  The  student  of  natural  science  scruti- 
nizes, touches,  weighs,  measures,  analyzes,  dissects, 
and  watches  things.  By  these  exercises  his  powers 
of  observation  and  judgment  are  trained,  and  he 
acquires  the  precious  habit  of  observing  the  ap- 
pearances, transformations,  and  processes  of  na- 
ture. Like  the  hunter  and  the  artist,  he  has  open 
eyes  and  an  educated  judgment  in  seeing.  He  is 
at  home  in  some  large  tract  of  nature's  domain. 
Finally,  he  acquires  the  scientific  method  of  study 
in  the  field,  where  that  method  was  originally  per- 
fected. In  our  day,  the  spirit  in  which  a  true 
scholar  will  study  Indian  arrow-heads,  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  or  reptile  tracks  in  sandstone,  is  one 
and  the  same,  although  these  objects  belong  re- 
spectively to  three  separate  sciences  —  archaeology, 
philology,  and  paleontology.  But  what  is  this 
spirit?  It  is  the  patient,  cautious,  sincere,  self- 
directing  spirit  of  natural  science.  One  of  the  best 
of  living  classical  scholars.  Professor  Jebb  of  Glas- 
gow, states  this  fact  in  the  following  forcible  words : 
"The  diffusion  of  that  which  is  specially  named 
science  has  at  the  same  time  spread  abroad  the 
only  spirit  in  which  any  kind  of  knowledge  can  be 

no 


H^bat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

prosecuted  to  a  result  of  lasting  intellectual  value." 
Again,  the  arts  built  upon  chemistry,  physics,  bot- 
any, zoology,  and  geology  are  chief  factors  in  the 
civilization  of  our  time,  and  are  growing  in  ma- 
terial and  moral  influence  at  a  marvelous  rate. 
Since  the  beginning  of  this  century,  they  have 
wrought  wonderful  changes  in  the  physical  relation 
of  man  to  the  earth  which  he  inhabits,  in  national 
demarcations,  in  industrial  organization,  in  gov- 
ernmental functions,  and  in  the  modes  of  domestic 
life;  and  they  will  certainly  do  as  much  for  the 
twentieth  century  as  they  have  done  for  ours. 
They  are  not  simply  mechanical  or  material  forces ; 
they  are  also  moral  forces  of  great  intensity.  I 
maintain  that  the  young  science  which  has  already 
given  to  all  sciences  a  new  and  better  spirit  and 
method,  and  to  civilization  new  powers  and  re- 
sources of  infinite  range,  deserves  to  be  admitted 
with  all  possible  honors  to  the  circle  of  the  liberal 
arts ;  and  that  a  study  fitted  to  train  noble  facul- 
ties, which  are  not  trained  by  the  studies  now 
chiefly  pursued  in  youth,  ought  to  be  admitted  on 
terms  of  perfect  equality  to  the  academic  cur- 
riculum. 

The  wise  men  of  the  fifteenth  century  took  the 
best  intellectual  and  moral  materials  existing  in 
their  day, —  namely,  the  classical  literatures,  meta- 
physics, mathematics,  and  systematic  theology, — 
and  made  of  them  the  substance  of  the  education 
which  they  called  liberal.  When  we  take  the  best 
intellectual  and  moral  materials  of  their  day  and 
of  ours  to  make  up  the  list  of  subjects  worthy  to 

I II 


IVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

rank  as  liberal,  and  to  be  studied  for  discipline, 
ought  we  to  omit  that  natural  science  which  in  its 
outcome  supplies  some  of  the  most  important 
forces  of  modern  civilization  ?  We  do  omit  it.  I 
do  not  know  a  single  preparatory  school  in  this 
countiy  in  which  natural  science  has  an  adequate 
place,  or  any  approach  to  an  adequate  place,  al- 
though some  beginnings  have  lately  been  made. 
There  is  very  little  profit  in  studying  natural  sci- 
ence in  a  book,  as  if  it  were  grammar  or  history ; 
for  nothing  of  the  peculiar  discipline  which  the 
proper  study  of  science  supplies  can  be  obtained 
in  that  way,  although  some  information  on  scien- 
tific subjects  may  be  so  acquired.  In  most  colleges 
a  little  scientific  information  is  offered  to  the  stu- 
dent through  lectures  and  the  use  of  manuals,  but 
no  scientific  training.  The  science  is  rarely  intro- 
duced as  early  as  the  Sophomore  year ;  generally 
it  begins  only  with  the  Junior  year,  by  which 
time  the  mind  of  the  student  has  become  so  set  in 
the  habits  which  the  study  of  languages  and  mathe- 
matics engenders,  that  he  finds  great  difficulty  in 
grasping  the  scientific  method.  It  seems  to  him 
absurd  to  perform  experiments  or  make  dissec- 
tions. Can  he  not  read  in  a  book,  or  see  in  a  pic- 
ture, what  the  results  will  be  ?  The  only  way  to 
prevent  this  disproportionate  development  of  the 
young  mind  on  the  side  of  linguistic  and  abstract 
reasoning  is  to  introduce  into  school  courses  of 
study  a  fair  amount  of  training  in  sciences  of  ob- 
servation. Over  against  four  languages,  the  ele- 
ments of  mathematics,  and  the  elements  of  history, 

112 


IVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

there  must  be  set  some  accurate  study  of  things. 
Were  other  argument  needed,  I  should  find  it  in 
the  great  addition  to  the  enjoyment  of  life  which 
results  from  an  early  acquaintance  and  constant 
intimacy  with  the  wonders  and  beauties  of  external 
nature.  For  boy  and  man  this  intimacy  is  a 
source  of  ever-fresh  delight. 

To  the  list  of  studies  which  the  sixteenth  century 
called  liberal,  I  would  therefore  add,  as  studies  of 
equal  rank,  English,  French,  German,  history, 
political  economy,  and  natural  science,  not  one  of 
which  can  be  said  to  have  existed  in  mature  form 
when  the  definition  of  liberal  education  which  is 
still  in  force  was  laid  down.  In  a  large  university 
many  other  languages  and  sciences  will  be  objects 
of  study ;  I  confine  myself  here  to  those  studies 
which,  in  my  judgment,  are  most  desirable  in  an 
ordinary  college.  We  are  now  in  position  to  con- 
sider how  the  necessity  for  allowing  choice  among 
studies  has  arisen. 

The  second  and  third  of  the  three  principal  prop- 
ositions which  I  wish  to  demonstrate  —  namely, 
that  earlier  choice  should  be  allowed  among  co- 
ordinate studies,  and  that  the  existing  order  of 
studies  needs  to  be  modified  —  may  be  treated 
much  more  briefly  than  the  first  proposition,  al- 
though in  them  lies  the  practical  application  of  the 
whole  discussion.  When  the  men  of  the  sixteenth 
century  had  taken  all  the  sciences  known  to  their 
generation  to  make  up  their  curriculum  of  liberal 
study,  the  sum  was  not  so  large  as  to  make  it  im- 
possible for  a  student  to  cover  the  whole  ground 
^  113 


H^bat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

effectually.  But  if  the  list  of  liberal  arts  is  ex- 
tended, as  I  have  urged,  it  is  manifest  that  no  man 
can  cover  the  whole  ground  and  get  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  any  subject.  Hence  the  necessity 
of  allowing  the  student  to  choose  among  many 
coordinate  studies  the  few  to  which  he  will  devote 
himself.  In  a  vain  endeavor  to  introduce  at  least 
some  notions  about  the  new  sciences  into  the  cur- 
riculum of  the  year  1600,  the  managers  of  Ameri- 
can colleges  have  made  it  impossible  for  the  student 
to  get  a  thorough  knowledge  of  any  subject  what- 
ever. The  student  has  a  better  chance  to  learn 
Greek  and  Latin  than  anything  else ;  but  he  does 
not  get  instruction  enough  in  these  languages  to 
enable  him  to  master  them.  In  no  other  subject 
can  he  possibly  get  beyond  the  elements,  if  he  keep 
within  the  official  schedules  of  studies.  Consider 
what  sort  of  an  idea  of  metaphysics  can  be  ob- 
tained from  a  single  text-book  of  moderate  size, 
into  which  the  whole  vast  subject  has  been  filtered 
through  one  preoccupied  mind ;  or  of  physics  from 
a  short  course  of  lectures  and  a  little  manual  of 
three  or  four  hundred  pages  prepared  by  a  teacher 
who  is  not  himself  an  investigator ;  or  of  political 
economy  from  a  single  short  treatise  by  an  author 
not  of  the  first  rank.  These  are  not  imaginary 
sketches ;  they  are  described  from  the  life.  Such 
are  the  modes  of  dealing  with  these  sciences  which 
prevail  in  the  great  majority  of  American  colleges. 
I  need  not  dwell  upon  this  great  evil,  which  is 
doing  untold  injury  every  year.  The  remedies  are 
plain.    First,  let  the  new  studies  be  put  in  every 

114 


IVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

respect  on  a  level  with  the  old ;  and  then  let  such 
a  choice  among  coordinate  studies  be  given  as  to 
secure  to  the  student  a  chance  to  be  thorough  in 
something.  To  be  effective,  option  must  be  per- 
mitted earlier  than  it  is  now.  This  proposition  — 
that  earlier  options  are  desirable  —  cannot  be  dis- 
cussed without  simultaneously  considering  the 
order  of  studies  at  school  and  college. 

Boyhood  is  the  best  time  to  learn  new  languages; 
so  that  as  many  as  possible  of  the  four  languages, 
French,  German,  Latin,  and  Greek,  ought  to  be 
begun  at  school.  But  if  all  boys  who  are  to  receive 
a  liberal  education  are  required  to  learn  to  read  all 
four  languages  before  they  go  to  college,  those  boys 
who  are  not  quick  at  languages  will  have  very  lit- 
tle time  for  other  studies.  English,  the  elements 
of  mathematics,  the  elements  of  some  natural  sci- 
ence properly  taught,  and  the  history  of  England 
and  the  United  States  being  assumed  as  funda- 
mentals, it  is  evident  that  some  choice  among  the 
four  remaining  languages  must  be  allowed,  in  order 
not  to  restrict  unduly  the  number  of  boys  who 
go  to  college.  With  very  good  instruction,  many 
boys  could  doubtless  learn  to  read  all  four  lan- 
guages tolerably  well  before  they  were  eighteen 
years  old  without  sacrificing  more  essential  things ; 
but  there  are  boys  of  excellent  capacity  in  other 
subjects  who  could  not  accomplish  this  linguistic 
task ;  and  in  many  States  of  the  Union  it  is  quite 
impossible  to  get  very  good  instruction  in  all  these 
languages.  Therefore  I  believe  that  an  option 
should  be  allowed  among  these  four  languages  at 

115 


PVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

college  admission  examinations,  any  three  being 
accepted,  and  the  choice  being  determined  in  each 
case  by  the  wishes  of  parents,  the  advice  of  teach- 
ers, the  destination  of  the  candidate  if  settled,  the 
better  quality  of  accessible  instruction  in  one  lan- 
guage than  in  another,  or  the  convenience  of  the 
school  which  the  candidate  attends.  Whichever 
language  the  candidate  did  not  offer  at  admission 
he  should  have  opportunity  to  begin  and  pursue  at 
college. 

As  to  the  best  order  in  which  to  take  up  these 
four  languages,  I  notice  that  most  persons  who 
have  thought  of  the  matter  hold  some  theory  about 
it  with  more  or  less  confidence ;  but  that  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking peoples  have  little  or  no  experience 
upon  the  subject.  One  would  naturally  suppose 
that  easiest  first,  hardest  last,  would  be  a  good 
rule ;  but  such  is  not  the  present  practice  in  this 
country.  On  the  contrary,  Latin  is  often  begun 
before  French ;  and  it  is  common  to  begin  Greek 
at  fourteen  and  Q-erman  at  twenty.  In  education, 
as  in  other  things,  I  am  a  firm  believer  in  the  prin- 
ciple of  expending  the  least  force  which  will  ac- 
complish the  object  in  view.  If  a  language  is  to 
be  learned,  I  would  teach  it  in  the  easiest  known 
method,  and  at  the  age  when  it  can  be  easiest 
learned.  But  there  is  another  theory  which  is  often 
acted  upon,  though  seldom  explicitly  stated  — 
the  theory  that,  for  the  sake  of  discipline,  hard- 
ness that  is  avoidable  should  be  deliberately  im- 
posed upon  boys;  as,  for  instance,  by  forcing  a 
boy  to  study  many  languages  who  has  no  gifts 

ii6 


IVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

that  way  and  can  never  attain  to  any  mastery  of 
them.  To  my  mind  the  only  justification  of  any 
kind  of  discipline,  training,  or  drill  is  attainment 
of  the  appropriate  end  of  that  discipline.  It  is  a 
waste  for  society,  and  an  outrage  upon  the  indi- 
vidual, to  make  a  boy  spend  the  years  when  he  is 
most  teachable  in  a  discipline  the  end  of  which  he 
can  never  reach,  when  he  might  have  spent  them 
in  a  different  discipline,  which  would  have  been 
rewarded  by  achievement.  Herein  lies  the  funda- 
mental reason  for  options  among  school  as  well  as 
college  studies,  all  of  which  are  liberal.  A  mental 
discipline  which  takes  no  account  of  differences  of 
capacity  and  taste  is  not  well  directed.  It  follows 
that  there  must  be  variety  in  education  instead  of 
uniform  prescription.  To  ignorant  or  thoughtless 
people  it  seems  that  the  wisdom  and  experience  of 
the  world  ought  to  have  produced  by  this  time  a 
uniform  course  of  instruction  good  for  all  boys,  and 
made  up  of  studies  permanently  preeminent ;  but 
there  are  two  strong  reasons  for  believing  that  this 
convenient  result  is  unattainable :  in  the  first  place, 
the  uniform  boy  is  lacking;  and,  in  the  second  place, 
it  is  altogether  probable  that  the  educational  value 
of  any  established  study,  far  from  being  perma- 
nently fixed,  is  constantly  changing  as  new  know- 
ledge accumulates  and  new  sciences  come  into 
being.  Doubtless  the  eleventh  century  thought  it 
had  a  permanent  curriculum  in  ^^  Lingua,  tropuSj 
ratio,  numerus,  tonus,  angulus,  astra  " ;  doubtless  the 
course  of  study  which  Erasmus  followed  was  held 
by  the  teachers  of  that  day  to  supply  the  only 

8*  117 


^bat  IS  a  Liberal  Education? 

sufficient  liberal  education ;  and  we  all  know  that 
since  the  year  1600,  or  thereabouts,  it  has  been  held 
by  the  wisest  and  most  cultivated  men  that  Greek, 
Latin,  and  mathematics  are  the  only  good  disci- 
plinary studies.  Whewell,  whose  foible  was  om- 
niscience, did  not  hesitate  to  apply  to  these  three 
studies  the  word  "permanent."  But  if  history 
proves  that  the  staples  of  education  have  in  fact 
changed,  reason  says  still  more  clearly  that  they 
must  change.  It  would  be  indeed  incredible  that 
organized  education  should  not  take  account  of  the 
progress  of  knowledge.  We  may  be  sure  that  the 
controlling  intellectual  forces  of  the  actual  world, 
century  by  century,  penetrate  educational  pro- 
cesses, and  that  languages,  literatures,  philos- 
ophies, or  sciences  which  show  themselves  fruit- 
ful and  powerful  must  win  recognition  as  liberal 
arts  and  proper  means  of  mental  discipline. 

Two  objections  to  the  views  which  I  have  been 
presenting  occur  at  once  to  every  conservative 
mind.  I  have  often  been  met  with  the  question : 
Is  this  traditional  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  which 
for  three  hundred  years,  at  least,  has  had  a  toler- 
ably clear  meaning,  to  be  deprived  of  all  exact 
significance,  so  that  it  will  be  impossible  to  tell 
what  one  who  holds  the  degree  has  studied?  I 
reply  that  the  degree  will  continue  to  testify  to  the 
main  fact  to  which  it  now  bears  witness,  namely, 
that  the  recipient  has  spent  eight  or  ten  years, 
somewhere  between  the  ages  of  twelve  and  twenty- 
three,  in  liberal  studies.  I  might  add  that  the 
most  significant  and  valuable  degree  in  arts  which 

ii8 


^hat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

is  anywhere  given  —  the  German  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Philosophy  and  Master  of  Arts — does  not  stand 
for  any  particular  studies,  and  does  not  indicate 
in  any  individual  case  the  special  studies  for  which 
it  was  conferred,  although  it  does  presuppose  the 
earlier  accomplishment,  at  a  distance  of  several 
years,  of  the  curriculum  of  a  German  gymnasium. 
A  second  objection  is  expressed  in  the  signifi- 
cant question:  What  will  become  of  Greek  and 
Latin  if  all  these  new  subjects  are  put  on  an 
equality  with  them  ?  Will  Greek  and  Latin,  and 
the  culture  which  they  represent,  survive  the  in- 
vasion? To  this  question  I  answer,  first,  that  it 
is  proposed,  not  to  substitute  new  subjects  for  the 
old,  but  only  to  put  new  subjects  beside  the  old  in 
a  fair  competition,  and  not  to  close  any  existing 
road  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  but  only  to 
open  new  ones ;  secondly,  that  the  proposed  modi- 
fication of  the  present  prescription  of  Greek  and 
Latin  for  all  boys  who  are  to  go  to  college  will 
rid  the  Greek  and  Latin  classes  of  unwilling  and 
incapable  pupils,  to  the  great  advantage  of  the 
pupils  who  remain ;  and,  thirdly,  that  the  with- 
drawal of  the  artificial  protection  now  given  to  the 
Classics  will  cause  the  study  of  classical  antiquity 
to  rely  —  to  use  the  well-chosen  words  of  Professor 
Jebb  on  the  last  page  of  his  life  of  Bentley  —  "  no 
longer  upon  a  narrow  or  exclusive  prescription, 
but  upon  a  reasonable  perception  of  its  proper 
place  amongst  the  studies  which  belong  to  a  liberal 
education."  The  higher  the  value  which  one  sets 
on  Greek  and  Latin  as  means  of  culture,  the  firmer 

119 


PVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

must  be  his  belief  in  the  permanence  of  those 
studies  when  they  cease  to  be  artificially  pro- 
tected. In  education,  as  elsewhere,  it  is  the  fittest 
that  survives.  The  Classics,  like  other  studies, 
must  stand  upon  their  own  merits;  for  it  is  not 
the  proper  business  of  universities  to  force  subjects 
of  study,  or  particular  kinds  of  mental  discipline, 
upon  unwilling  generations ;  and  they  cannot  pru- 
dently undertake  that  function,  especially  in  a 
country  where  they  have  no  support  from  an  es- 
tablished church,  or  from  an  aristocratic  organiza- 
tion of  society,  and  where  it  would  be  so  easy  for 
the  generations,  if  repelled,  to  pass  the  univer- 
sities by. 

Finally,  the  enlargement  of  the  circle  of  liberal 
arts  may  justly  be  urged  on  the  ground  that  the 
interests  of  the  higher  education  and  of  the  insti- 
tutions which  supply  that  education  demand  it. 
Liberal  education  is  not  safe  and  strong  in  a  coun- 
try in  which  the  great  majority  of  the  men  who 
belong  to  the  intellectual  professions  are  not  liber- 
ally educated.  Now,  that  is  just  the  case  in  this 
country.  The  great  majority  of  the  men  who  are 
engaged  in  the  practice  of  law  and  medicine,  in 
journalism,  the  public  service,  and  the  scientific 
professions,  and  in  industrial  leadership,  are  not 
Bachelors  of  Arts.  Indeed,  the  only  learned  pro- 
fession which  contains  to-day  a  large  proportion 
of  Bachelors  of  Arts  is  the  ministry.  This  sorry 
condition  of  things  is  doubtless  due  in  part  to 
what  may  be  called  the  pioneer  condition  of  Amer- 
ican society ;  but  I  think  it  is  also  due  to  the  anti- 

120 


IVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

quated  state  of  the  common  college  curriculum, 
and  of  the  course  of  preparatory  study  at  school. 
When  institutions  of  learning  cut  themselves  off 
from  the  sympathy  and  support  of  large  numbers 
of  men  whose  lives  are  intellectual,  by  refusing  to 
recognize  as  liberal  arts  and  disciplinary  studies 
languages,  literatures,  and  sciences  which  seem  to 
these  men  as  important  as  any  which  the  institu- 
tions cultivate,  they  inflict  a  gratuitous  injury 
both  on  themselves  and  on  the  country  which  they 
should  serve.  Their  refusal  to  listen  to  parents 
and  teachers  who  ask  that  the  avenues  of  approach 
to  them  may  be  increased  in  number,  the  new 
roads  rising  to  the  same  grade  or  level  as  the  old, 
would  be  an  indication  that  a  gulf  already  yawned 
between  them  and  large  bodies  of  men  who  by 
force  of  character,  intelligence,  and  practical  train- 
ing are  very  influential  in  the  modern  world.  For 
twenty  years  past  signs  have  not  been  wanting 
that  the  American  college  was  not  keeping  pace 
with  the  growth  of  the  country  in  population  and 
wealth.  I  believe  that  a  chief  cause  of  this  rela- 
tive decline  is  the  narrowness  of  the  course  of 
study  in  both  school  and  college. 

The  execution  of  the  principles  which  I  have 
advocated  would  involve  considerable  changes  in 
the  order  of  school  and  college  studies.  Thus, 
science-teaching  should  begin  early  in  the  school 
course;  English  should  be  studied  from  the  be- 
ginning of  school  life  to  the  end  of  college  life; 
and  the  order  in  which  the  other  languages  are 
taken  up  should  be  for  many   boys    essentially 

121 


IVbat  is  a  Liberal  Education? 

changed.  We  should  in  vain  expect  such  changes 
to  be  made  suddenly.  They  must  be  gradually 
brought  about  by  the  pressure  of  public  opinion 
—  by  the  public  opinion  of  the  educated  classes 
taking  gradual  effect  through  established  educa- 
tional instrumentalities.  The  change  will  be 
wrought  by  the  demands  of  parents  upon  private 
schools;  by  the  influence  of  trustees  and  com- 
mittees in  charge  of  endowed  and  public  schools 
upon  school  courses  of  study;  by  the  conditions 
which  benefactors  and  founders  impose  upon  their 
gifts  and  bequests  to  liberal  education;  by  the 
competition  of  industrial  and  technological  schools ; 
and  by  the  gradual  encroachment  of  the  modern 
subjects  upon  the  ancient  in  colleges  and  univer- 
sities. All  these  influences  are  at  work,  and  much 
ground  has  been  gained  during  the  last  fifteen 
years. 


122 


LIBERTY  IN  EDUCATION 

Before  the   Nineteenth   Century  Club  of  New  York,  in    1885 


LIBERTY  IN  EDUCATION 


HOW  to  transform  a  college  with  one  uniform 
curriculum  into  a  university  without  any 
prescribed  course  of  study  at  all  is  a  problem 
which  more  and  more  claims  the  attention  of  all 
thoughtful  friends  of  American  learning  and  edu- 
cation. To-night  I  hope  to  convince  you  that  a 
university  of  liberal  arts  and  sciences  must  give 
its  students  three  things : 

I.  Freedom  in  choice  of  studies. 

II.  Opportunity  to  win  academic  distinction  in 
single  subjects  or  special  lines  of  study. 

III.  A  discipline  which  distinctly  imposes  on 
each  individual  the  responsibility  of  forming  his 
own  habits  and  guiding  his  own  conduct. 

These  three  subjects  I  shall  take  up  in  succes- 
sion, the  first  of  them  taking  the  greater  part  of 
the  time  allotted  me. 

I.  Of  freedom  in  choice  of  studies. 

Let  me  first  present  what  I  may  call  a  mechani- 
cal argument  on  this  subject.  A  college  with  a 
prescribed  curriculum  must  provide,  say,  sixteen 
hours  a  week  of  instruction  for  each  class,  or  sixty- 

125 


Liberty  in  Education 

four  hours  a  week  in  all  for  the  four  classes,  with- 
out allowing  for  repetitions  of  lectures  or  lessons. 
Six  or  eight  teachers  can  easily  give  all  the  instruc- 
tion needed  in  such  a  college,  if  no  repetitions  are 
necessary.  If  the  classes  are  so  large  that  they 
need  to  be  divided  into  two  or  more  sections,  more 
teachers  must  be  employed.  If  a  few  extra  or 
optional  studies,  outside  of  the  curriculum,  are 
provided,  a  further  addition  to  the  number  of 
teachers  must  be  made.  Twenty  teachers  would, 
however,  be  a  liberal  allowance  for  any  college  of 
this  type ;  and  accordingly  there  are  hundreds  of 
American  colleges  at  this  moment  with  less  than 
twenty  teachers  all  told.  Under  the  prescribed 
system  it  would  be  impossible  for  such  a  college  to 
find  work  for  more  teachers,  if  it  had  them.  Now 
there  are  eighty  teachers  employed  this  year  in 
Harvard  College,  exclusive  of  laboratory  assis- 
tants ;  and  these  eighty  teachers  give  about  four 
hundred  and  twenty-five  hours  of  public  instruc- 
tion a  week  without  any  repetitions,  not  counting 
the  very  important  instruction  which  many  of  them 
give  in  laboratories.  It  is  impossible  for  any 
undergraduate  in  his  four  years  to  take  more  than 
a  tenth  part  of  the  instruction  given  by  the  Col- 
lege ;  and  since  four  fifths  of  this  instruction  is  of 
a  higher  grade  than  any  which  can  be  given  in  a 
college  with  a  prescribed  curriculum,  a  diligent 
student  would  need  about  forty  years  to  cover  the 
present  field ;  and  during  those  years  the  field  would 
enlarge  quite  beyond  his  powers  of  occupation. 
Since  the  student  cannot  take  the  whole  of  the 

126 


Liberty  in  Education 

instruction  offered,  it  seems  to  be  necessary  to 
allow  him  to  take  a  part.  A  college  must  either 
limit  closely  its  teaching,  or  provide  some  mode  of 
selecting  studies  for  the  individual  student.  The 
limitation  of  teaching  is  an  intolerable  alternative 
for  any  institution  which  aspires  to  become  a 
university;  for  a  university  must  try  to  teach 
every  subject,  above  the  grade  of  its  admission  re- 
quirements, for  which  there  is  any  demand ;  and 
to  teach  it  thoroughly  enough  to  carry  the  ad- 
vanced student  to  the  confines  of  present  know- 
ledge, and  make  him  capable  of  original  research. 
These  are  the  only  limits  which  a  university  can 
properly  set  to  its  instruction  —  except  indeed 
those  rigorous  limits  which  poverty  imposes.  The 
other  alternative  is  selection  or  election  of  studies. 

The  elective  system  at  Harvard  has  been  sixty 
years  in  developing,  and  during  fourteen  of  these 
years  —  from  1846  to  1860  —  the  presidents  and 
the  majority  of  the  faculty  were  not  in  favor  of  it ; 
but  they  could  find  no  way  of  escape  from  the  di- 
lemma which  I  have  set  before  you.  They  could 
not  deliberately  reduce  the  amount  of  instruction 
offered,  and  election  of  studies  in  some  degree  was 
the  inevitable  alternative. 

The  practical  question  then  is.  At  what  age,  and 
at  what  stage  of  his  educational  progress,  can  an 
American  boy  be  offered  free  choice  of  studies  ?  or, 
in  other  words,  At  what  age  can  an  American  boy 
best  go  to  a  free  university?  Before  answering 
this  question  I  will  ask  your  attention  to  four  pre- 
liminary observations. 

127 


Liberty  in  Education 

1.  The  European  boy  goes  to  free  universities 
at  various  ages  from  seventeen  to  twenty ;  and  the 
American  boy  is  decidedly  more  mature  and  more 
capable  of  taking  care  of  himself  than  the  Euro- 
pean boy  of  like  age. 

2.  The  change  from  school  to  university  ought 
to  be  made  as  soon  as  it  would  be  better  for  the 
youth  to  associate  with  older  students  under  a  dis- 
cipline suited  to  their  age,  than  with  younger  pu- 
pils under  a  discipline  suited  to  theirs  —  as  soon, 
in  short,  as  it  would  be  better  for  the  youth  to  be 
the  youngest  student  in  a  university  than  the  old- 
est boy  in  a  school.  The  school  might  still  do 
much  for  the  youth ;  the  university  may  as  yet  be 
somewhat  too  free  for  him :  there  must  be  a  bal- 
ancing of  advantages  against  disadvantages;  but 
the  wise  decision  is  to  withdraw  him  betimes  from 
a  discipline  which  he  is  outgrowing,  and  put  him 
under  a  discipline  which  he  is  to  grow  up  to.  When 
we  think  of  putting  a  boy  into  college,  our  imagi- 
nations are  apt  to  dwell  upon  the  occasional  and 
exceptional  evil  influences  to  which  his  new  free- 
dom will  expose  him,  more  than  upon  those  habit- 
ual and  prevailing  influences  of  college  companion- 
ship which  will  nourish  his  manliness  and  develop 
his  virtue ;  just  as  we  are  apt  to  think  of  heredity 
chiefly  as  a  means  of  transmitting  vices  and  dis- 
eases, whereas  it  is  normally  the  means  of  trans- 
mitting and  accumulating  infinitely  various  virtues 
and  serviceable  capacities. 

3.  A  young  man  is  much  affected  by  the  expec- 
tations which  his  elders  entertain  of  him.    If  they 

128 


Liberty  in  Education 

expect  him  to  behave  like  a  child,  his  lingering 
childishness  will  oftener  rule  his  actions;  if  they 
expect  him  to  behave  like  a  man,  his  incipient 
manhood  will  oftener  assert  itseK.  The  pretended 
parental  or  sham  monastic  regime  of  the  common 
American  college  seems  to  me  to  bring  out  the 
childishness  rather  than  the  manliness  of  the  aver- 
age student;  as  is  evidenced  by  the  pranks  he 
plays,  the  secret  societies  in  which  he  rejoices,  and 
the  barbarous  or  silly  customs  which  he  accepts 
and  transmits.  The  conservative  argument  is: 
a  college  must  deal  with  the  student  as  he  is ;  he 
will  be  what  he  has  been,  namely,  a  thoughtless, 
aimless,  lazy,  and  possibly  vicious  boy ;  therefore 
a  policy  which  gives  him  liberty  is  impracticable. 
The  progressive  argument  is :  adapt  college  policy 
to  the  best  students,  and  not  to  the  worst;  im- 
prove the  policy,  and  in  time  the  evil  fruits  of  a 
mistaken  policy  will  disappear.  I  would  only  urge 
at  this  point  that  a  far-seeing  educational  policy 
must  be  based  upon  potentialities  as  well  as  actu- 
alities, upon  things  which  may  be  reasonably  hoped 
for,  planned,  and  aimed  at,  as  well  as  upon  things 
which  are. 

4.  The  condition  of  secondary  education  is  an 
important  factor  in  our  problem.  It  is  desirable 
that  the  young  men  who  are  to  enjoy  university 
freedom  should  have  already  received  at  school  a 
substantial  training,  in  which  the  four  gi'eat  sub- 
divisions of  elementary  knowledge  —  languages, 
history,  mathematics,  and  natural  science  —  were 
all  adequately  represented;  but  it  must  be  ad- 
9  129 


Liberty  in  Education 

mitted  that  this  desirable  training  is  now  given  in 
very  few  schools,  and  that  in  many  parts  of  the 
country  there  are  not  secondary  schools  enough  of 
even  tolerable  quality.  For  this  condition  of  sec- 
ondary education  the  colleges  are  in  part  responsi- 
ble; for  they  have  produced  few  good  teachers, 
except  for  the  ancient  languages ;  and  they  have 
required  for  admission  to  college  hardly  anything 
but  the  elements  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  mathematics. 
But  how  should  this  condition  of  things  affect  the 
policy  of  an  institution  which  sees  its  way  to 
obtain  a  reasonable  number  of  tolerably  prepared 
students  ?  Shall  we  stop  trying  to  create  a  uni- 
versity because  the  condition  of  secondary  educa- 
tion in  the  country  at  large  is  unsatisfactory  ?  The 
difficulty  with  that  policy  of  inaction  is  that  the 
reform  and  development  of  secondary  education 
depend  upon  the  right  organization  and  conduct 
of  universities.  It  is  the  old  problem  :  "Which  was 
first  created,  an  Qgg  or  a  hen  ?  In  considering  the 
relation  of  college  life  to  school  life,  many  people 
are  confused  by  a  misleading  metaphor  —  that  of 
building.  They  say  to  themselves :  on  weak  foun- 
dations no  strong  superstructure  can  be  built; 
schools  lay  the  foundations  on  which  the  uni- 
versity must  build;  therefore,  if  preparatory 
schools  fail  to  do  good  work,  no  proper  university 
work  can  subsequently  be  done.  The  analogy 
seems  perfect,  but  has  this  fatal  defect :  education  is 
a  vital  process,  not  a  mechanical  one.  Let  us,  there- 
fore, use  an  illustration  drawn  from  a  vital  func- 
tion, that  of  nutrition.    A  child  has  had  poor  milk 

130 


Liberty  in  Education 

as  an  infant,  and  is  not  well  developed ;  therefore, 
when  its  teeth  are  cut,  and  it  is  ready  for  bread, 
meat,  and  oatmeal,  you  are  to  hold  back  this  sub- 
stantial diet,  and  give  it  the  sweetened  milk  and 
water,  and  Mellin's  Food,  which  would  have  suited 
it  when  a  baby.  The  mental  food  of  a  boy  has  not 
been  as  nourishing  and  abundant  as  it  should  have 
been  at  school ;  therefore  when  he  goes  to  college 
or  university  his  diet  must  be  that  which  he  should 
have  had  at  school,  but  missed.  Education  involves 
growth  or  development  from  within  in  every  part ; 
and  metaphors  drawn  from  the  process  of  laying 
one  stone  upon  another  are  not  useful  in  edu- 
cational discussions.  Harvard  College  now  finds 
itself  able  to  get  nearly  three  hundred  tolerably 
prepared  students  every  year  from  one  hundred 
or  more  schools  and  private  tutors  scattered  over 
the  country ;  and  she  is  only  just  beginning  to 
reap  the  fruit  of  the  changes  in  her  own  policy 
and  discipline  which  the  past  eighteen  years  have 
wrought.  Schools  follow  universities,  and  will  be 
what  universities  make  them. 

With  these  preliminary  suggestions  I  proceed  to 
answer  the  question.  At  what  age  can  an  Ameri- 
can boy  best  go  to  a  university  where  choice  of 
studies  is  free  ?  and  to  defend  my  answer.  I  be- 
lieve the  normal  age  under  reasonably  favorable 
conditions  to  be  eighteen.  In  the  first  place,  I 
hold  that  the  temperament,  physical  constitution, 
mental  aptitudes,  and  moral  quality  of  a  boy  are 
all  well  determined  by  the  time  he  is  eighteen  years 
old.    The  potential  man  is  already  revealed.    His 

131 


Liberty  in  Education 

capacities  and  incapacities  will  be  perfectly  visible 
to  his  teacher,  or  to  any  observant  and  intimate 
friend,  provided  that  his  studies  at  school  have 
been  fairly  representative.  If  his  historical  studies 
have  been  limited  to  primers  of  Q-reek,  Roman, 
and  American  history,  his  taste  and  capacity  for 
historical  study  will  not  be  known  either  to  his 
teacher  or  to  himself ;  if  he  has  had  no  opportunity 
to  study  natural  science,  his  powers  in  that  direc- 
tion will  be  quite  unproved;  but  if  the  school 
course  has  been  reasonably  comprehensive,  there 
need  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  most  profitable  direc- 
tion of  his  subsequent  studies.  The  boy's  future 
will  depend  greatly  upon  the  influences,  happy  or 
unhappy,  to  which  he  is  subjected ;  but  given  all 
favorable  influences,  his  possibilities  are  essentially 
determined.  The  most  fortunate  intellectual  in- 
fluences will  be  within  his  reach,  if  he  has  liberty 
to  choose  the  mental  food  which  he  can  best  as- 
similate. Secondly,  at  eighteen  the  American 
boy  has  passed  the  age  when  a  compulsory  exter- 
nal discipline  is  useful.  Motives  and  inducements 
may  be  set  vividly  before  him;  he  may  be  told 
that  he  must  do  so  and  so  in  order  to  win  some- 
thing which  he  desires  or  values ;  prizes  and  re- 
wards near  or  remote  may  be  held  out  to  him ;  but 
he  cannot  be  driven  to  any  useful  exercise  of  his 
mind.  T^irci?!/,  a  well-instructed  youth  of  eighteen 
can  select  for  himself — not  for  any  other  boy,  or  for 
the  fictitious  universal  boy,  but  for  himself  alone — 
a  better  course  of  study  than  any  college  faculty, 
or  any  wise  man  who  does  not  know  him  and  his 

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Liberty  in  Education 

ancestors  and  his  previous  life,  can  possibly  select 
for  him.  In  choosing  his  course  he  will  naturally 
seek  aid  from  teachers  and  friends  who  have  inti- 
mate knowledge  of  him,  and  he  will  act  under  the 
dominion  of  that  intense  conservatism  which  for- 
tunately actuates  civilized  man  in  the  whole  matter 
of  education,  and  under  various  other  safeguards 
which  nature  and  not  arbitrary  regulation  pro- 
vides. When  a  young  man  whom  I  never  saw 
before  asks  me  what  studies  he  had  better  take  in 
college,  I  am  quite  helpless,  until  he  tells  me  what 
he  likes  and  what  he  dislikes  to  study,  what  kinds 
of  exertion  are  pleasurable  to  him,  what  sports  he 
cares  for,  what  reading  interests  him,  what  his 
parents  and  grandparents  were  in  the  world,  and 
what  he  means  to  be.  In  short,  I  can  only  show 
him  how  to  think  out  the  problem  for  himself  with 
such  lights  as  he  has  and  nobody  else  can  have. 
The  proposition  that  a  boy  of  eighteen  can  choose 
his  own  studies,  with  the  natural  helps,  more 
satisfactorily  than  anybody  else  can  choose  them 
for  him,  seems  at  first  sight  absurd ;  but  I  believe 
it  to  be  founded  upon  the  nature  of  things,  and  it  is 
also  for  me  a  clear  result  of  observation.  I  will 
state  first  the  argument  from  the  nature  of  things, 
and  then  describe  my  own  observations. 

Every  youth  of  eighteen  is  an  infinitely  complex 
organization,  the  duplicate  of  which  neither  does 
nor  ever  will  exist.  His  inherited  traits  are  differ- 
ent from  those  of  every  other  human  being;  his 
environment  has  been  different  from  that  of  every 
other  child ;  his  passions,  emotions,  hopes,  and  de- 


Liberty  in  Education 

sires  were  never  before  associated  in  any  other 
creature  just  as  they  are  in  him;  and  his  will-force 
is  aroused,  stimulated,  exerted,  and  exhausted  in 
ways  wholly  his  own.  The  infinite  variety  of  form 
and  feature,  which  we  know  human  bodies  to  be 
capable  of,  presents  but  a  faint  image  of  the  vastly 
deeper  diversities  of  the  minds  and  characters 
which  are  lodged  in  these  unlike  shells.  To  dis- 
cern and  take  due  account  of  these  diversities  no 
human  insight  or  wisdom  is  sufficient,  unless  the 
spontaneous  inclinations,  natural  preferences,  and 
easiest  habitual  activities  of  each  individual  are 
given  play.  It  is  for  the  happiness  of  the  indi- 
vidual and  the  benefit  of  society  alike  that  these 
mental  diversities  should  be  cultivated,  not  sup- 
pressed. The  individual  enjoys  most  that  intellec- 
tual labor  for  which  he  is  most  fit ;  and  society  is 
best  served  when  every  man's  peculiar  skill,  faculty, 
or  aptitude  is  developed  and  utilized  to  the  highest 
possible  degree.  The  presumption  is,  therefore, 
against  uniformity  in  education,  and  in  favor  of 
diversity  at  the  earliest  possible  moment.  "What 
determines  that  moment?  To  my  thinking,  the 
limit  of  compulsory  uniform  instruction  should  be 
determined  by  the  elementary  quality  and  recog- 
nized universal  utility  of  the  subjects  of  such  in- 
struction. For  instance,  it  is  unquestionable  that 
every  child  needs  to  know  how  to  read,  write, 
and,  to  a  moderate  extent,  cipher.  Therefore  pri- 
mary schools  may  have  a  uniform  programme.  One 
might  naturally  suppose  that  careful  study  of  the 
mother-tongue  and  its  literature  would  be  consid- 

134 


Liberty  in  Education 

ered  a  uniform  need  for  all  youth ;  but  as  a  matter 
of  fact  there  is  no  agreement  to  this  effect.  The 
English  language  and  literature  have  hardly  yet 
won  a  place  for  themselves  in  American  schools. 
Only  the  elements  of  two  foreign  languages  and 
the  elements  of  algebra  and  geometry  can  be  said 
to  be  generally  recognized  as  indispensable  to  the 
proper  training  of  all  young  people  who  are  privi- 
leged to  study  beyond  their  seventeenth  year. 
There  is  no  consent  as  to  the  uniform  desirableness 
of  the  elements  of  natural  science,  and  there  is 
much  difference  of  opinion  about  the  selection  of 
the  two  foreign  languages,  the  majority  of  educated 
people  supposing  two  dead  languages  to  be  prefer- 
able, a  minority  thinking  that  living  languages  are 
permissible.  The  limit  of  that  elementary  know- 
ledge, of  which  by  common  consent  all  persons 
who  are  to  be  highly  educated  stand  in  need,  is 
therefore  a  narrow  one,  easily  to  be  reached  and 
passed,  under  respectable  instruction,  by  any  youth 
of  fair  ability  before  he  is  eighteen  years  old. 
There,  at  least,  ceases  justifiable  uniformity  in 
education.  There,  at  least,  election  of  studies 
should  begin;  and  the  safest  guides  to  a  wise 
choice  will  be  the  taste,  inclination,  and  special  ca- 
pacity of  each  individual.  When  it  comes  to  the 
choice  of  a  profession,  everybody  knows  that  the 
only  wisdom  is  to  follow  inclination.  In  my  view, 
the  only  wisdom  in  determining  those  liberal  studies 
which  may  be  most  profitably  pursued  after  eigh- 
teen is  to  follow  inclination.  Hence  it  is  only  the 
individual  youth  who  can  select  that  course  of  study 

135 


Liberty  in  Educatian 

which  will  most  profit  him,  because  it  will  most 
interest  him.  The  very  fact  of  choice  goes  far  to 
secure  the  cooperation  of  his  will. 

I  have  already  intimated  that  there  exist  certain 
natural  guides  and  safeguards  for  every  youth  who 
is  called  upon  in  a  free  university  to  choose  his 
own  studies.  Let  us  see  what  these  natural  aids 
are.  In  the  first  place,  he  cannot  help  taking  up  a 
subject  which  he  has  already  studied  about  where 
he  left  it  off,  and  every  new  subject  at  the  begin- 
ning and  not  at  the  middle.  Secondly,  many 
subjects  taught  at  a  university  involve  other  sub- 
jects, which  must  therefore  be  studied  first.  Thus, 
no  one  can  get  far  in  physics  without  being  fa- 
miliar with  trigonometry  and  analytic  geometry; 
chemical  analysis  presupposes  acquaintance  with 
general  chemistry,  and  paleontology  acquaintance 
with  botany  and  zoology;  no  one  can  study  Ger- 
man philosophy  to  advantage  unless  he  can  read 
German,  and  no  student  can  profitably  discuss 
practical  economic  problems  until  he  has  mastered 
the  elementary  principles  of  political  economy. 
Every  advanced  course,  whether  in  language, 
philosophy,  history,  mathematics,  or  science,  pre- 
supposes acquaintance  with  some  elementary 
course  or  courses.  Thirdly,  there  is  a  prevailing 
tendency  on  the  part  of  every  competent  student 
to  carry  far  any  congenial  subject  once  entered 
upon.  To  repress  this  most  fortunate  tendency  is 
to  make  real  scholarship  impossible.  So  effective 
are  these  natural  safeguards  against  fickleness  and 

136 


Liberty  in  Education 

inconsecutiveness  in  the  choice  of  studies,  that  arti- 
ficial regulation  is  superfluous. 

I  give,  in  the  next  place,  some  results  of  my  own 
observation  upon  the  working  of  an  elective  sys- 
tem ;  and  that  you  may  have  my  credentials  before 
you  I  will  describe  briefly  my  opportunities  of  ob- 
servation. I  had  experience  as  an  undergraduate 
of  a  college  course  almost  wholly  required;  for  I 
happened  upon  nearly  the  lowest  stage  to  which 
the  elective  system  in  Harvard  College  ever  fell, 
after  its  initiation  in  1825.  During  the  nine  years 
from  1854  to  1863  I  became  intimately  acquainted 
with  the  working  of  this  mainly  prescribed  curric- 
ulum from  the  point  of  view  of  a  tutor  and  assis- 
tant professor  who  had  a  liking  for  administrative 
details.  After  a  separation  from  the  University  of 
six  years,  two  of  which  were  spent  in  Europe  as  a 
student  and  four  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of 
Technology  as  a  professor,  I  went  back  as  president 
in  1869,  to  find  a  tolerably  broad  elective  system 
already  under  way.  The  wishes  of  the  governing 
boards  and  external  circumstances  all  favoring 
it,  the  system  was  rapidly  developed.  Required 
studies  were  gradually  abolished  or  pushed  back ; 
so  that  first  the  Senior  year  was  made  completely 
elective,  then  the  Junior,  then  the  Sophomore,  and 
finally  in  June  last  the  Freshman  year  was  made 
chiefly  elective.  No  required  studies  now  remain 
except  the  writing  of  English,  the  elements  of 
either  French  or  German  (one  of  these  two  lan- 
guages being  required  for  admission),  and  a  few 

'37 


Liberty  in  Education 

lectures  on  chemistry  and  physics.  None  of  the 
former  exclusive  staples,  Greek,  Latin,  mathe- 
matics, logic,  and  metaphysics,  are  required,  and 
no  particular  combinations  or  selections  of  courses 
are  recommended  by  the  faculty.  I  have  there- 
fore had  ample  opportunity  to  observe  at  Harvard 
the  working  of  almost  complete  prescription,  of  al- 
most complete  freedom,  and  of  all  intermediate 
methods.  In  Europe  I  studied  the  free  university 
method ;  and  at  the  Institute  of  Technology  I  saw 
the  system  —  excellent  for  technical  schools  —  of 
several  well-defined  courses  branching  from  a  com- 
mon stock  of  uniformly  prescribed  studies. 

The  briefest  form  in  which  I  can  express  the 
general  result  of  my  observation  is  this:  I  have 
never  known  a  student  of  any  capacity  to  select  for 
himself  a  set  of  studies  covering  four  years  which 
did  not  apparently  possess  more  theoretical  and 
practical  merit  for  his  case  than  the  required  cur- 
riculum of  my  college  days.  Every  prescribed 
curriculum  is  necessarily  elementary  from  begin- 
ning to  end,  and  very  heterogeneous.  Such  is  the 
press  of  subjects  that  no  one  subject  can  possibly 
be  carried  beyond  its  elements;  no  teacher,  how- 
ever learned  and  enthusiastic,  can  have  any  ad- 
vanced pupils ;  and  no  scholar,  however  competent 
and  eager,  can  make  serious  attainments  in  any 
single  subject.  Under  an  elective  system  the  great 
majority  of  students  use  their  liberty  to  pursue 
some  subject  or  subjects  with  a  reasonable  degree 
of  thoroughness.  This  concentration  upon  single 
lines  develops  advanced  teaching,  and  results  in  a 

138 


Liberty  in  Education 

general  raising  of  the  level  of  instruction.  Stu- 
dents who  have  decided  taste  for  any  particular 
subject  wisely  devote  a  large  part  of  their  time  to 
that  subject  and  its  congeners.  Those  who  have 
already  decided  upon  their  profession  wisely  choose 
subjects  which  are  related  to,  or  underlie,  their  fu- 
ture professional  studies;  thus,  the  future  physi- 
cian will  advantageously  give  a  large  share  of  his 
college  course  to  French,  Grerman,  chemistry,  phy- 
sics, and  biology;  while  the  future  lawyer  will 
study  logic,  ethics,  history,  political  economy,  and 
the  use  of  English  in  argumentative  writing  and 
speaking.  Among  the  thousands  of  individual 
college  courses  determined  by  the  choice  of  the 
student  in  four  successive  years,  which  the  records 
of  Harvard  College  now  preserve,  it  is  rare  to  find 
one  which  does  not  exhibit  an  intelligible  sequence 
of  studies.  It  should  be  understood  in  this  con- 
nection that  all  the  studies  which  are  allowed  to 
count  toward  the  A.  B.  at  Harvard  are  liberal  or 
pure,  no  technical  or  professional  studies  being 
admissible. 

Having  said  thus  much  about  the  way  in  which 
an  American  student  will  use  freedom  in  the  choice 
of  studies,  I  desire  to  point  out  that  a  young 
American  must  enjoy  the  privileges  of  university 
life  between  eighteen  and  twenty-two,  if  at  all. 
From  two  thirds  to  three  fourths  of  college  gradu- 
ates go  into  professions  or  employments  which  re- 
quire of  them  elaborate  special  preparation.  The 
medical  student  needs  four  years  of  professional 
training,  the  law  student  at  least  three,  the  good 

139 


Liberty  in  Education 

teacher  and  the  skilful  architect  quite  as  much. 
Those  who  enter  the  service  of  business  corpo- 
rations, or  go  into  business  for  themselves,  have 
the  business  to  learn  —  a  process  which  ordinarily 
takes  several  years.  If  a  young  man  takes  his 
A.  B.  at  twenty-two,  he  can  hardly  hope  to  begin 
the  practice  of  his  profession  before  he  is  twenty- 
six.  That  is  quite  late  enough.  It  is  clearly  im- 
possible, therefore,  that  the  American  university 
should  be  constructed  on  top  of  the  old-fashioned 
American  college.  The  average  Freshman  at  Har- 
vard is  eighteen  and  two  thirds  years  old  when  he 
enters,  and  at  the  majority  of  colleges  he  is  older 
still.  For  the  next  three  or  four  years  he  must 
have  freedom  to  choose  among  liberal  studies,  if 
he  is  ever  to  enjoy  that  inestimable  privilege. 

Two  common  objections  to  an  elective  system 
shall  next  have  our  attention.  The  first  is  often 
put  in  the  form  of  a  query.  Election  of  studies 
may  be  all  very  weU  for  conscientious  or  ambitious 
students,  or  for  those  who  have  a  strong  taste  for 
certain  studies;  but  what  becomes,  under  such  a 
system,  of  the  careless,  indifferent,  lazy  boys  who 
have  no  bent  or  intellectual  ambition  of  any  sort  ? 
I  answer  with  a  similar  query:  What  became  of 
such  boys  under  the  uniform  compulsory  system  I 
Did  they  get  any  profit  to  speak  of  under  that 
regime!  Not  within  my  observation.  It  really 
does  not  make  much  difference  what  these  un- 
awakened  minds  dawdle  with.  There  is,  how- 
ever, much  more  chance  that  such  young  men  will 
get  roused  from  their  lethargy  under  an  elective 

140 


Liberty  in  Education 

system  than  under  a  required.  "When  they  follow 
such  faint  promptings  of  desire  as  they  feel,  they  at 
least  escape  the  sense  of  grievance  and  repugnance 
which  an  arbitrary  assignment  to  certain  teachers 
and  certain  studies  often  creates.  An  elective  sys- 
tem does  not  mean  liberty  to  do  nothing.  The 
most  indifferent  student  must  pass  a  certain  num- 
ber of  examinations  every  year.  He  selects  per- 
haps those  subjects  in  which  he  thinks  he  can  pass 
the  best  examinations  with  the  smallest  amount  of 
labor;  but  in  those  very  subjects  the  instruction 
will  be  on  a  higher  plane  than  it  can  ever  reach 
under  a  compulsory  system,  and  he  will  get  more 
benefit  from  them  than  he  would  from  other  sub- 
jects upon  which  he  put  the  same  amount  of  labor 
but  attained  less  success.  It  is  an  important  prin- 
ciple in  education,  from  primary  school  to  univer- 
sity, that  the  greater  the  visible  attainment  for  a 
given  amount  of  labor  the  better;  and  this  rule 
applies  quite  as  forcibly  to  a  weak  student  as  to 
a  strong  one.  Feeble  or  inert  students  are  con- 
siderably influenced  in  choosing  their  studies  by 
the  supposed  quality  of  the  teachers  whom  they 
will  meet.  As  a  rule  they  select  the  very  teachers 
who  are  likely  to  have  the  most  influence  with 
them,  being  guided  by  traditions  received  from 
older  students  of  their  sort.  It  is  the  unanimous 
opinion  of  the  teachers  at  Cambridge  that  more 
and  better  work  is  got  from  this  class  of  students 
under  the  elective  system  than  was  under  the 
required. 
Having  said  thus  much  about  the  effects  of  free 

141 


Liberty  in  Education 

choice  of  studies  upon  the  unpromising  student,  I 
must  add  that  the  policy  of  an  institution  of  edu- 
cation, of  whatever  grade,  ought  never  to  be  de- 
termined by  the  needs  of  the  least  capable  students; 
and  that  a  university  should  aim  at  meeting  the 
wants  of  the  best  students  at  any  rate,  and  the 
wants  of  inferior  students  only  so  far  as  it  can 
meet  them  without  impairing  the  privileges  of  the 
best.  A  uniform  curriculum,  by  enacting  super- 
ficiality and  prohibiting  thoroughness,  distinctly 
sacrifices  the  best  scholars  to  the  average.  Free 
choice  of  studies  gives  the  young  genius  the  fullest 
scope  without  impairing  the  chances  of  the  drone 
and  the  dullard. 

The  second  objection  with  which  I  wish  to  deal 
is  this :  free  choice  implies  that  there  are  no  studies 
which  are  recognized  as  of  supreme  merit,  so  that 
every  young  man  unquestionably  ought  to  pursue 
them.  Can  this  be  ?  Is  it  possible  that  the  accu- 
mulated wisdom  of  the  race  cannot  prescribe  with 
certainty  the  studies  which  will  best  develop  the 
human  mind  in  general  between  the  ages  of  eigh- 
teen and  twenty-two  ?  At  first  it  certainly  seems 
strange  that  we  have  to  answer  no ;  but  when  we 
reflect  how  very  brief  the  acquaintance  of  the  race 
has  been  with  the  great  majority  of  the  subjects 
which  are  now  taught  in  a  university  the  negative 
answer  seems  less  surprising.  Out  of  the  two  hun- 
dred courses  of  instruction  which  stand  on  the  list 
of  Harvard  University  this  year  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  select  twenty  which  could  have  been  given  at 
the  beginning  of  this  century  with  the  illustrations, 

142 


Liberty  in  Education 

materials,  and  methods  now  considered  essential  to 
the  educational  quality  of  the  courses.  One  realizes 
more  easily  this  absence  of  accumulated  experience 
on  considering  that  all  the  natural  sciences,  with 
comparative  philology,  political  economy,  and  his- 
tory, are  practically  new  subjects,  that  all  mathe- 
matics is  new  except  the  elements  of  arithmetic,  alge- 
bra, and  geometry,  that  the  recent  additions  to  ethics 
and  metaphysics  are  of  vast  extent,  and  that  the  lit- 
eratures of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries 
have  great  importance  in  several  European  lan- 
guages. The  materials  and  methods  of  university 
education  always  have  been,  and  always  will  be, 
changing  from  generation  to  generation.  We  think, 
perhaps  with  truth,  that  the  nineteenth  century  has 
been  a  period  of  unprecedented  growth  and  prog- 
ress ;  but  every  century  has  probably  witnessed  an 
unprecedented  advance  in  civilization,  simply  be- 
cause the  process  is  cumulative,  if  no  catastrophes 
arrest  it.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  functions 
of  universities  to  store  up  the  accumulated  know- 
ledge of  the  race,  and  so  to  use  these  stores  that  each 
successive  generation  of  youth  shall  start  with  all 
the  advantages  which  their  predecessors  have  won. 
Therefore  a  university,  while  not  neglecting  the 
ancient  treasures  of  learning,  has  to  keep  a  watch- 
ful eye  upon  the  new  fields  of  discovery,  and  has  to 
invite  its  students  to  walk  in  new-made  as  well  as 
in  long-trodden  paths.  Concerning  the  direct  edu- 
cational influence  of  all  these  new  subjects  the  race 
cannot  be  said  to  have  much  accumulated  wisdom. 
One  presumption  of  considerable  scope  may,  how- 

143 


Liberty  in  Education 

ever,  be  said  to  be  established  by  experience.  In 
every  new  field  of  knowledge  the  mental  powers  of 
the  adventurers  and  discoverers  found  full  play 
and  fruitful  exercise.  Some  rare  human  mind 
or  minds  must  have  laboriously  developed  each  new 
subject  of  study.  It  may  fairly  be  presumed  that 
the  youth  wiU  find  some  strenuous  exercise  of  his 
faculties  in  following  the  masters  into  any  field 
which  it  taxed  their  utmost  powers  to  explore  and 
describe.  To  study  the  conquests  of  great  minds  in 
any  field  of  knowledge  must  be  good  training  for 
young  minds  of  kindred  tastes  and  powers.  That 
all  branches  of  sound  knowledge  are  of  equal  dig- 
nity and  equal  educational  value  for  mature  stu- 
dents is  the  only  hopeful  and  tenable  view  in  our 
day.  Long  ago  it  became  quite  impossible  for  one 
mind  to  compass  more  than  an  insignificant  frac- 
tion of  the  great  sum  of  acquired  knowledge. 

Before  I  leave  the  subject  of  election  of  studies, 
let  me  point  out  that  there  is  not  a  university  of 
competent  resources  upon  the  continent  of  Europe 
in  which  complete  freedom  of  studies  has  not  long 
prevailed;  and  that  Oxford  and  Cambridge  have 
recently  provided  an  almost  complete  liberty  for 
their  students.  In  our  own  country  respectable 
colleges  now  offer  a  considerable  proportion  of 
elective  studies,  and  as  a  rule  the  greater  their 
resources  in  teachers,  collections,  and  money,  the 
more  liberal  their  application  of  the  elective  prin- 
ciple. Many  colleges,  however,  still  seem  to  have 
but  a  halting  faith  in  the  efficacy  of  the  principle, 
and  our  educated  public  has  but  just  begun  to  ap- 

144 


Liberty  in  Education 

predate  its  importance.  So  fast  as  American  in- 
stitutions acquire  the  resources  and  powers  of 
European  universities,  they  will  adopt  the  methods 
proper  to  universities  wherever  situate.  At  present 
our  best  colleges  fall  very  far  short  of  European 
standards  in  respect  to  number  of  teachers,  and 
consequently  in  respect  to  amplitude  of  teaching. 

As  yet  we  have  no  university  in  America — only 
aspirants  to  that  eminence.  All  the  more  impor- 
tant is  it  that  we  should  understand  the  condi- 
tions under  which  a  university  can  be  developed — 
the  most  indispensable  of  which  is  freedom  in  choice 
of  studies. 

II.  A  university  must  give  its  students  oppor- 
tunity to  win  distinction  in  special  subjects  or 
lines  of  study.  The  uniform  curriculum  led  to 
a  uniform  degree,  the  first  scholar  and  the  last 
receiving  the  same  diploma.  A  university  can- 
not be  developed  on  that  plan.  It  must  provide 
academic  honors  at  graduation  for  distinguished 
attainments  in  single  subjects.  These  honors  en- 
courage students  to  push  far  on  single  lines; 
whence  arises  a  demand  for  advanced  instruction 
in  all  departments  in  which  honors  can  be  won, 
and  this  demand,  taken  in  connection  with  the 
competition  which  naturally  springs  up  between 
different  departments,  stimulates  the  teachers,  who 
in  turn  stimulate  their  pupils.  The  elaborate  di- 
rections given  by  each  department  to  candidates 
for  honors  are  so  many  definite  pieces  of  advice 
to  students  who  wish  to  specialize  their  work.  It 
is  an  incidental  advantage  of  the  system  that  the 
10  145 


Liberty  in  Education 

organization  of  departments  of  instruction  is  pro- 
moted by  it.  The  teachers  of  Latin,  of  history,  or 
of  philosophy,  find  it  necessary  to  arrange  their 
courses  in  orderly  sequence,  to  compare  their 
methods  and  their  results,  and  to  enrich  and  di- 
versify as  much  as  possible  the  instruction  which 
they  collectively  offer.  Many  European  univer- 
sities, but  especially  the  English,  offer  honors,  or 
prizes,  or  both  of  these  inducements,  for  distin- 
guished merit  in  specialties;  and  the  highly  valued 
degree  of  Ph.  D.  in  Germany  is  a  degree  given  for 
large  attainments  in  one  or  two  branches  of  know- 
ledge, with  mention  of  the  specialty.  The  Harvard 
faculty  announced  their  system  of  honors  in  1866- 
67,  and  they  certainly  never  passed  a  more  effec- 
tive piece  of  legislation.  In  1879  they  devised  a 
lesser  distinction  at  graduation  called  honorable 
mention,  which  has  also  worked  very  well.  To  get 
honors  in  any  department  ordinarily  requires  a 
solid  year  and  a  halfs  work;  to  get  honorable 
mention  requires  about  half  that  time.  The  impor- 
tant function  of  all  such  devices  is  to  promote 
specialization  of  work  and  therefore  to  develop 
advanced  instruction.  It  is  unnecessary  to  point 
out  how  absolutely  opposed  to  such  a  policy  the 
uniform  prescription  of  a  considerable  body  of  ele- 
mentary studies  must  be. 

III.  A  university  must  permit  its  students,  in 
the  main,  to  govern  themselves.  It  must  have  a 
large  body  of  students,  else  many  of  its  numer- 
ous courses  of  highly  specialized  instruction  will 
find  no  hearers,  and  the  students  themselves  will 

\a6 


Liberty  in  Education 

not  feel  that  very  wholesome  influence  which 
comes  from  observation  of  and  contact  with  large 
numbers  of  young  men  from  different  nations, 
States,  schools,  families,  sects,  parties,  and  condi- 
tions of  life.  In  these  days  a  university  is  best 
placed  in  or  near  the  seat  of  a  considerable  pop- 
ulation; so  that  its  officers  and  students  can  al- 
ways enjoy  the  various  refined  pleasures,  and  feel 
alike  the  incitements  and  the  restraints,  of  a  high- 
ly cultivated  society.  The  universities  of  Eome, 
Paris,  Vienna,  Berlin,  Leipsic,  Christiania,  Ma- 
drid, and  Edinburgh  forcibly  illustrate  both  of 
these  advantages.  These  conditions  make  it  prac- 
tically impossible  for  a  university  to  deal  with 
its  students  on  any  principle  of  seclusion,  either  in 
a  village  or  behind  walls  and  bars.  Fifteen  hun- 
dred able-bodied  young  men  living  in  buildings 
whose  doors  stand  open  night  and  day,  or  in  scat- 
tered lodging-houses,  cannot  be  mechanically  pro- 
tected from  temptation  at  the  university  any  more 
than  at  the  homes  from  which  they  came.  Their 
protection  must  be  within  them.  They  must  find 
it  in  memory  of  home,  in  pure  companionship,  in 
hard  work,  in  intellectual  ambition,  religious  sen- 
timent, and  moral  purpose.  A  sense  of  personal 
freedom  and  responsibility  reinforces  these  protect- 
ing influences,  while  the  existence  of  a  supervising 
authority  claiming  large  powers  which  it  has  no 
effective  means  of  exercising  weakens  them.  The 
in  loco  parentis  theory  is  an  ancient  fiction  which 
ought  no  longer  to  deceive  anybody.  No  American 
college,  wherever  situated,  possesses  any  method 

M7 


Liberty  in  Education 

of  discipline  which  avails  for  the  suppression  or 
exclusion  of  vice.  The  vicious  student  can  find 
all  means  of  indulgence  in  the  smallest  village,  and 
the  worst  vices  are  the  stillest.  It  is  a  distinct  ad- 
vantage of  the  genuine  university  method  that  it 
does  not  pretend  to  maintain  any  parental  or  mo- 
nastic discipline  over  its  students,  but  frankly  tells 
them  that  they  must  govern  themselves.  The 
moral  purpose  of  a  university's  policy  should  be  to 
train  young  men  to  self-control  and  self-reliance 
through  liberty.  It  is  not  the  business  of  a  uni- 
versity to  train  men  for  those  functions  in  which 
implicit  obedience  is  of  the  first  importance.  On 
the  contrary,  it  should  train  men  for  those  occupa- 
tions in  which  self-government,  independence,  and 
originating  power  are  preeminently  needed.  Let 
no  one  imagine  that  a  young  man  is  in  peculiar 
moral  danger  at  an  active  and  interesting  univer- 
sity. Far  from  it.  Such  a  university  is  the  safest 
place  in  th,e  world  for  young  men  who  have  any- 
thing in  them  —  far  safer  than  counting-room, 
shop,  factory,  farm,  barrack,  forecastle,  or  ranch. 
The  student  lives  in  a  bracing  atmosphere ;  books 
engage  him ;  good  companionships  invite  him ; 
good  occupations  defend  him ;  helpful  friends  sur- 
round him ;  pure  ideals  are  held  up  before  him ; 
ambition  spurs  him ;  honor  beckons  him. 


148 


CAN  SCHOOL  PROGRAMMES  BE  SHORT^ 
ENED  AND  ENRICHED? 

Washington    Meeting    of    the    Department    of    Superintendence    of 
THE  National  Educational  Association,  February  i6,   1888 


10* 


CAN  SCHOOL  PROGRAMMES  BE 
SHORTENED  AND  ENRICHED? 


IN  the  process  of  improving  the  secondary  schools, 
colleges,  and  professional  schools  of  the  United 
States, —  a  process  which  has  been  carried  on  with 
remarkable  energy  since  the  Civil  War, —  certain 
new  difficulties  have  been  created  for  the  higher 
education  in  general,  and  particularly  for  colleges. 
These  difficulties  have  to  do  with  the  age  at  which 
young  men  can  get  prepared  for  college,  and  there- 
fore with  the  ages  at  which  boys  pass  the  succes- 
sive stages  of  their  earlier  education.  The 
average  age  of  admission  to  Harvard  College  has 
been  rising  for  sixty  years  past,  and  has  now 
reached  the  extravagant  limit  of  eighteen  years 
and  ten  months.  Harvard  College  is  not  at  all 
peculiar  in  this  respect ;  indeed,  many  of  the  coun- 
try colleges  find  their  young  men  older  still  at 
entrance.  The  average  college  graduate  is  un- 
doubtedly nearly  twenty-three  years  old  at  gradu- 
ation ;  and  when  he  has  obtained  his  A.  B.  he  must 
nowadays  allow  at  least  three  years  for  his  profes- 
sional education. 

151 


Can  School  Programmes 

In  respect  to  the  length  of  time  required  for  a 
satisfactory  professional  training,  there  has  been  a 
great  change  since  the  War.  Twenty  years  ago  the 
period  of  residence  at  Harvard  University  for  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Laws  was  eighteen  months ; 
now  it  is  three  years.  Many  of  the  States  of  the 
American  Union  have  passed  laws  which  practi- 
cally make  three  years  the  normal  period  of  study 
before  admission  to  the  bar.  Ambitious  medical 
students  are  giving  four  years  to  their  medical 
training.  Twenty  years  ago  the  leading  colleges 
were  satisfied  to  take  men  just  graduated  in  arts 
as  tutors  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  mathematics.  Now 
they  expect  a  candidate  for  a  tutorship  or  in- 
structorship  to  have  devoted  two  or  three  years  to 
study  after  taking  his  bachelor's  degree.  School 
boards  and  trustees  have  become  correspondingly 
exacting.  In  short,  professional  education  in  the 
United  States  is  becoming  constantly  more  thor- 
ough and  elaborate,  and  is  therefore  demanding  of 
aspirants  to  the  professions  more  and  more  time. 
The  average  college  graduate  who  fits  himself  well 
for  any  one  of  the  learned  professions,  including 
teaching,  can  hardly  begin  to  support  himself 
before  he  is  twenty-seven  years  old. 

This  condition  of  things  is  so  unreasonable  in  a 
new  country  like  the  United  States  —  being  hardly 
matched  in  the  oldest  and  most  densely  peopled 
countries  of  Europe  —  that  some  remedy  is  ur- 
gently demanded ;  and  the  first  partial  remedy  that 
suggests  itself  is  to  reduce  the  average  age  of 
admission  to  college  to  eighteen.    This  reduction 

IS2 


Be  Shortened  and  Enricbed? 

would  save  about  a  year.  In  effecting  this  saving 
of  time,  it  is  greatly  to  be  wished  that  no  reduction 
should  be  made  in  the  attainments  which  the  aver- 
age candidate  for  admission  now  brings  to  the 
American  colleges ;  for  it  is  probable  that  the  sav- 
ing thus  effected  will  not  be  sufficient  in  itself,  and 
that  the  public  interests  will  require  in  addition 
some  shortening  of  the  ordinary  college  course  of 
four  years.  College  men,  therefore,  are  anxiously 
looking  to  see  if  the  American  school  courses  can 
be  both  shortened  and  enriched, — shortened,  so  that 
our  boys  may  come  to  college  at  eighteen  instead 
of  nineteen,  and  enriched,  in  order  that  they  may 
bring  to  college  at  eighteen  more  than  they  now 
bring  at  nineteen,  so  that  the  standard  of  the  A.  B. 
may  not  be  lowered. 

The  anxiety  with  which  men  charged  with  the 
conduct  of  college  education  look  at  this  question 
is  increased  by  the  relative  decline  of  American 
colleges  and  universities  as  a  whole.  This  relative 
decline,  which  was  pointed  out  nearly  twenty  years 
ago  by  President  Barnard  of  Columbia  College,  is 
very  visible  of  late  years.  The  population  of  the 
United  States  is  supposed  by  the  best  authorities 
to  increase  about  one  third  in  every  period  of  ten 
years.  In  the  ten-year  period  from  1875  to  1884 
inclusive,  the  universities  and  colleges  included  in 
the  tables  published  by  the  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation show  an  increase  in  their  number  of  students 
of  only  11  per  cent.,  instead  of  33|-  per  cent.  If  we 
select  from  the  same  tables  the  ten-year  period 
from  1876  to  1885,  the  increase  is  16  per  cent. ;  but 

153 


Can  School  Programmes 

the  explanation  of  this  higher  percentage  of  in- 
crease is  that  the  total  number  of  students  in  the 
year  1876  was  abnormally  low,  being  2400  below 
the  number  of  1875.  If  we  add  to  the  institutions 
enumerated  as  universities  and  colleges  all  the 
schools  of  science  and  all  the  higher  institutions 
for  the  education  of  women,  we  still  find  that  this 
enlarged  list  of  institutions  has  not  gained  students 
at  the  same  rate  at  which  the  population  has  in- 
creased, although  the  schools  of  science  have  made 
very  large  gains  in  the  decade  referred  to.  Thus 
the  increase  in  the  number  of  students  in  universi- 
ties and  colleges,  schools  of  science,  and  women's 
colleges,  all  taken  together,  was  only  23  per  cent, 
in  the  ten  years  from  1875  to  1884  inclusive.  Ob- 
viously there  are  serious  hindrances  affecting  all 
the  institutions  which  receive  young  men  and 
women  at  the  age  of  eighteen  or  nineteen  to  keep 
them  under  liberal  training  for  three  or  four  years. 
One  of  these  hindrances  undoubtedly  is  that  the 
colleges  as  a  whole  held  too  long  to  a  medieval 
curriculum;  but  a  greater  hindrance,  in  all  prob- 
ability, is  the  burden  imposed  upon  parents  when 
their  elaborately  educated  sons  cannot  support 
themselves  in  their  professions  until  they  are 
twenty-seven  or  twenty-eight  years  old.  Hence 
the  importance  of  the  inquiry.  Can  school  pro- 
grammes be  shortened  and  enriched? 

In  studying  this  problem  it  is  natural  to  turn 
first  to  the  schools  sometimes  called  preparatory — 
that  is,  to  the  best  high  schools  and  academies; 
but  if  we  examine  the  courses  of  study  in  these 

»54 


Be  Shortened  and  Enriched? 

schools  we  find  that  the  four  years  during  which 
they  keep  their  pupils  are  generally  crowded  with 
work.  Thus  the  Phillips  Academy,  at  Exeter,  New 
Hampshire,  one  of  the  best  academies  in  the  United 
States,  has  a  four  years'  course  which  is  so  full 
that  hardly  any  suggestion  can  be  made  for  com- 
pacting or  abbreviating  it.  But  what  are  the  re- 
quirements for  admission  to  Exeter?  "Some  know- 
ledge of  common-school  arithmetic,  writing,  and 
spelling,  and  of  the  elements  of  English  grammar." 
These  requirements  might  reasonably  be  made  of 
a  boy  leaving  the  primary  school  at  eight  years  of 
age ;  yet  the  average  age  of  admission  to  Exeter  is 
sixteen  and  one  half.  Now,  Exeter  is  an  academy 
which  does  not  content  itself  with  such  low  terms 
of  admission  unless  under  compulsion.  It  would 
require  more  if  it  could  get  more  from  the  average 
candidate;  but  it  draws  its  pupils  from  a  wide 
area,  and  its  experience  is  against  making  greater 
demands.  The  Exeter  course  is  itself  encumbered 
with  some  studies  suitable  for  a  boy  of  ten.  Thus 
it  devotes  much  time  to  arithmetic,  and  teaches 
the  very  elements  of  English  and  English  litera- 
ture. A  secondary  school  which  is  obliged  to  take 
its  pupils  in  the  average  condition  of  the  boys  who 
enter  Exeter  can  hardly  do  more  for  them  in  the 
four  years  between  sixteen  and  twenty  than  is  now 
accomplished  at  that  academy.  What  is  true  of 
Exeter  is  true  of  the  whole  body  of  upper  schools. 
They  have  to  make  good  the  deficiencies  of  the 
lower  schools.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  examine 
the  American  school  programmes  from  the  begin- 

155 


Can  School  Programmes 

ning,  to  start  with  the  primary  school  and  go  on 
through  the  grammar  school  and  the  high  school, 
searching  for  the  places  where  time  and  labor  can 
be  saved. 

The  subject  seems  to  be  one  chiefly  interesting 
to  colleges,  but  really  it  has  a  much  broader  scope. 
In  the  first  place,  whatever  improves  the  school 
programmes  for  those  children  whose  education  is 
to  be  prolonged,  perhaps,  until  they  are  twenty- 
five  years  old,  will  improve  the  programmes  also 
for  the  less  fortunate  children  whose  education  is 
to  be  briefer.  The  public  schools  will  never  send 
to  higher  institutions  any  very  large  proportion 
of  the  children  who  are  trained  in  them;  but 
their  programmes  may  best  be  made  substantial  and 
systematic  by  fitting  them  to  the  needs  of  their 
most  intelligent  and  fortunate  pupils.  Moreover, 
we  may  reasonably  strive  to  make  every  grade  of 
the  public-school  programme, — primary,  grammar, 
and  high, —  and,  indeed,  every  year  in  any  pro- 
gramme, a  thing  good  in  itself,  as  well  as  a  good 
introduction  to  the  course  of  study  which  lies 
beyond  it.  The  better  the  programme  is  in  itself, 
the  better  it  will  be  as  a  preparation  for  further 
study.  To  the  primary  and  grammar  schools  this 
principle  applies  in  all  its  fullness.  In  the  high 
school  and  academy  the  principle  needs  qualification 
for  the  foreign  languages  only,  and  for  that  portion 
of  the  programme  options  should  be  allowed.  The 
question,  Can  American  school  programmes  be  at 
once  condensed  and  enriched  I  has,  then,  a  wide  scope, 
and  touches  the  interests  of  the  whole  population. 

156 


Be  Shortened  and  Enriched? 

As  evidence  conducing  to  the  formation  of  a  just 
opinion  upon  the  practicability  of  shortening  and 
enriching  our  school  programmes,  an  actual  com- 
parison of  two  public-school  programmes, —  one 
French  and  one  American, —  covering  the  ages  of 
eight  to  seventeen  inclusive,  is  printed  on  pages 
171-176.  One  programme  is  that  of  the  French 
secondary  schools,  which  is  followed  all  over  France 
in  the  institutions  called  lycees ;  the  other  is  the 
programme  made  by  uniting  the  first  three  years 
of  the  Boston  grammar  schools  with  the  complete 
course  of  the  Boston  Latin  School.  It  is  assumed 
that  the  Boston  schools  are  a  fair  type  for  the 
country.  Indeed,  the  Boston  Latin  School  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  best,  as  it  is  the  oldest,  American 
classical  school  which  is  supported  by  local  taxa- 
tion. In  the  tables  referred  to  the  programmes  are 
placed  side  by  side,  so  that  the  courses  for  the 
same  years  of  age  can  be  conveniently  compared. 
It  is  in  each  case  the  classical  course  which  is  tab- 
ulated; but  a  similar  comparison  could  be  insti- 
tuted between  the  corresponding  programmes  in 
which  Latin  and  Greek  are  replaced  by  other  sub- 
jects. In  the  French  schools  Latin  and  Greek  can 
be  in  large  part  replaced  by  mathematical  and 
scientific  studies,  and  in  Boston  the  English  High 
School  offers  a  programme  like  that  of  the  Latin 
School,  but  with  similar  substitution  of  mathe- 
matical and  scientific  studies  for  all  the  Greek  and 
some  or  all  of  the  Latin.  The  present  purpose 
can  be  fully  accomplished  by  limiting  the  com- 
parison to  the  classical  programmes.    The  French 

157 


Can  School  Programmes 

programme  was  chosen  rather  than  the  programme 
of  a  German  gymnasuim,  because  it  is  a  lower 
term  of  comparison,  the  German  programme  be- 
ing more  comprehensive,  elaborate,  and  difficult. 
The  French  programme  is  a  recent  reduction  of 
a  programme  in  force  from  1880  to  1885,  the  re- 
duction amounting  to  about  twenty  per  cent., 
and  the  number  of  recitations  per  week  in  the 
two  programmes  (French  and  American)  is  nearly 
the  same.  It  is  the  best  of  foreign  programmes 
as  a  term  of  comparison,  because  France  is  so- 
cially a  democratic  country,  politically  a  republic, 
and  industrially  a  country  whose  chief  reliance, 
in  the  strenuous  competition  to  which  its  pop- 
ulation is  exposed  within  and  without,  is  the  in- 
telligence and  skill  of  its  producing  classes.  In 
all  these  respects  France  and  the  United  States 
closely  resemble  each  other.  Moreover,  the  French 
boy  has  no  possible  advantage  over  the  American 
boy  in  strength  of  constitution,  intelligence,  or  en- 
durance ;  on  the  contrary,  he  is  not  so  large  a  boy 
as  the  American  on  an  average,  and  he  is  not  so 
weU  fed. 

A  very  brief  examination  of  these  two  pro- 
grammes side  by  side  reveals  several  important 
facts.  The  French  programme  is  decidedly  the  more 
substantial ;  that  is  to  say,  it  calls  for  greater  exer- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  pupil  than  the  American,  in- 
troduces the  children  earlier  to  serious  subjects,  and 
is  generally  more  interesting  and  more  stimulating 
to  the  intelligence.  For  example,  at  eight  years  of 
age  the  French  boy  begins  to  study  a  foreign  lan- 

158 


Be  Shortened  and  Enriched? 

guage,  either  English  or  G^erman;  the  American 
boy  begins  to  study  a  modern  language  five  years 
later,  at  thirteen,  when  the  best  period  for  learning 
a  foreign  tongue  is  already  past.  The  French 
boy  of  eight  begins  the  study  of  history  in  a  very 
interesting  and  stimulating  way  through  the  study 
of  biography;  the  American  boy  gets  no  history 
until  he  is  thirteen,  when  he  begins  Grreek  history. 
The  French  boy  of  eight  gives  just  one  third  of  the 
time  to  arithmetic  that  the  American  boy  gives, 
and  in  the  whole  course  does  not  give  to  that  sub- 
ject more  than  one  third  the  time  the  American  boy 
gives;  yet,  for  practical  purposes,  the  French  are 
quite  as  skilful  with  numbers  as  the  Americans. 
The  French  boy  gets  at  natural  history  earlier  than 
the  American  boy,  and  in  better  subjects.  Again, 
the  French  programme  represents  an  actual  fact, 
the  large  majority  of  French  boys  passing  regularly 
through  it  at  the  ages  indicated  in  the  programme ; 
whereas  the  programme  of  the  Boston  Latin  School, 
prepared  for  the  years  from  eleven  to  sixteen  inclu- 
sive, actually  covers  the  years  from  thirteen  to 
eighteen  inclusive.  In  comparing  the  attainments 
of  the  Boston  boy  with  those  of  the  French  boy 
we  must  therefore  add  two  full  years  to  the  ages 
set  down  in  the  American  programme.  The  inferi- 
ority of  the  Boston  programme  then  becomes  very 
conspicuous.  There  is  no  single  subject  touched 
in  the  American  programme  in  which  the  French 
boy  does  not  accomplish  more  than  the  American. 
This  appears  very  clearly  on  comparing  the  amounts 
of  Latin  and  Greek  set  down  in  the  two  pro- 

159 


Can  School  Programmes 

grammes,  but  equally  plainly  in  geometry  and  phy- 
sics. Moreover,  the  French  course  extends  a  year 
beyond  the  American  course,  and  in  the  class  called 
philosophy  gives  a  comprehensive  survey  of  phi- 
losophy and  ethics,  a  thing  never  attempted  in  the 
United  States  with  boys  of  seventeen,  yet  found 
practicable  and  in  the  highest  degree  useful  in  the 
French  republic.  The  preponderance  of  the  French 
language,  the  mother-tongue,  in  the  French  pro- 
gramme is  most  noticeable.  Until  Latin  and  Greek 
are  introduced,  French  occupies  half  of  the  whole 
course.  When  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek  is  at 
its  height,  French  still  claims  a  substantial  portion 
of  the  programme ;  and  in  the  final  year,  the  year 
called  philosophy,  French  resumes  almost  exclu- 
sive possession  of  the  programme.  Great  improve- 
ments have  been  made  during  the  last  ten  years  in 
the  study  of  English  and  English  literature  in  the 
best  American  schools;  but  the  mother-tongue 
does  not  yet  hold  anything  like  the  place  in  Ameri- 
can schools  that  French  holds  in  the  French 
schools.  In  the  French  lycees  geometry  comes  be- 
fore algebra,  and  with  the  help  of  drawing  is  treated 
thoroughly  before  algebra  is  seriously  attacked, 
plane  geometry  being  finished  by  the  time  the  boy 
is  fourteen  years  of  age.  At  the  Boston  Latin 
School,  on  the  other  hand,  plane  geometry  is  not 
completed  until  the  boy  is  seventeen  according  to 
the  programme,  and  nineteen  in  reality.  This  brief 
discussion  of  the  two  programmes  may  reasonably 
convince  any  one  that  the  French  boy  makes  a 
much  greater  total  attainment  by  the  time  he  is 

i6o 


Be  Shortened  and  Enriched? 

eighteen  than  the  American  boy  has  a  chance  to 
make  at  the  best  American  schools  by  the  time 
he  is  nineteen.  Thorough  study  of  them  will  only 
strengthen  this  conviction. 

The  comparison  thus  instituted  gives  no  warrant 
for  impatient,  revolutionary  action.  The  trans- 
formation it  suggests  is  not  to  be  wrought  in  a 
year,  but  should  be  the  aim  of  patient  labor  during 
many  years.  Everybody  knows  that  foreign  insti- 
tutions of  education  cannot  be  imported;  that  a 
nation's  educational  institutions  are  strongly  influ- 
enced by  its  political,  ethical,  and  industrial  condi- 
tions, and  that  the  improvement  of  schools  and 
colleges  must  necessarily  be  slow.  It  may,  how- 
ever, be  justly  inferred  from  this  comparison  of 
programmes  that  the  condition  of  secondary  schools 
in  the  United  States  is  at  present  one  of  inferior- 
ity; that  the  country  ought  not  to  be  satisfied  with 
that  condition,  and  indeed  should  strenuously 
exert  itself  to  improve  it,  there  being  opportunity 
in  American  programmes  for  both  condensation 
and  enrichment.  If  it  be  said  that  the  American 
boy  turns  out  pretty  well  after  all,  and  that  the 
American  community,  as  a  whole,  is  as  intelligent 
as  the  French  or  the  German  community,  the  ready 
answer  is  that  free  institutions  are  in  themselves  a 
considerable  education  for  the  population ;  but  that 
the  advantage  which  the  nation  has  over  Europe 
in  possessing  free  institutions  ought  not  to  recon- 
cile it  to  a  position  of  inferiority  as  regards  schools ; 
it  ought  to  aim  to  have  the  best  schools,  too.  If 
it  be  practicable  to  make  American  primary  and 
"  i6i 


Can  School  Programmes 

secondary  schools  better,  the  work  of  improve- 
ment should  be  set  on  foot. 

The  fair  inference  from  the  above  tables  being 
that  improvement  is  practicable,  it  will  not  be  un- 
profitable to  consider  some  of  the  means  of  improv- 
ing the  American  public  school,  from  the  primary 
grade  through  the  high  school. 

1.  In  the  first  place,  better  programmes  need 
better  teachers.  The  great  difference  between  the 
French  and  German  secondarj'^  schools  and  the 
American  is  in  the  quality  of  the  teachers.  Two 
modes  of  improving  the  general  body  of  teachers  in 
the  public  schools  demand  special  attention.  In 
the  first  place,  school  committees,  superintendents, 
teachers  themselves,  and  all  friends  of  public  edu- 
cation should  constantly  strive  to  procure  a  better 
tenure  of  office  for  American  teachers.  The  Ameri- 
can schools  will  never  equal  the  schools  of  Germany 
and  France  until  well-proved  teachers  can  secure 
a  tenure  during  good  behavior  and  efficiency,  like 
teachers  in  those  countries.  Consideration,  dignity, 
and  quietness  of  mind  go  with  a  permanent  tenure, 
and  the  public-school  service  will  never  compete 
successfully  with  the  service  of  private  educational 
corporations  in  this  country  until  the  public  em- 
ploy is  as  good  as  the  private  employ  in  this  re- 
gard. Secondly,  the  average  skill  of  the  teachers  in 
the  public  schools  may  be  increased  by  raising  the 
present  low  proportion  of  male  teachers  in  the 
schools.  Herein  lies  one  of  the  great  causes  of  the 
inferiority  of  the  American  teaching  to  the  French 
and  German  teaching.    The  proportion  of  women 

162 


Be  Shortened  and  Enriched? 

teachers  in  American  schools  is  vastly  greater  than 
it  is  in  Europe.  The  larger  the  proportion  of 
women  in  any  system  of  public  schools,  the  larger 
will  be  the  percentage  of  new  appointments  every 
year,  and  the  larger  the  amount  of  work  done  by 
temporary  substitutes.  New  appointments  and 
substitutes  generally  mean  inexperienced  teachers, 
or,  at  the  best,  teachers  suddenly  put  to  work  in 
unaccustomed  places.  This  superiority  of  men  as 
teachers  has,  of  course,  nothing  whatever  to  do 
with  the  relative  intelligence  or  faithfulness  of 
men  and  women.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
many  women  enter  the  public  schools  as  teachers 
without  any  intention  of  long  following  the  busi- 
ness ;  and  also  that  women  are  absent  from  duty 
from  two  to  three  times  as  much  as  men.  Young 
men  who  take  up  teaching  as  a  temporary  expedient 
are  also  unsatisfactory  material.  The  schools  need 
the  life-work  of  highly  trained  and  experienced 
teachers.  After  these  two  most  important  means 
of  raising  the  average  quality  of  public-school 
teachers  come  lesser  means  which  ought  not  to  be 
neglected;  thus,  superintendents  and  committees 
can  do  something  to  improve  teachers  by  inva- 
riably advocating  the  expenditure  of  money  for 
teaching,  rather  than  for  mechanical  appliances  or 
buildings.  Cheap  teachers  and  expensive  appa- 
ratus and  buildings  are  precisely  the  reverse  of 
wise  practice,  particularly  if  the  fine  buildings  are 
not  fire-proof  after  all.  Again,  the  teaching  of  the 
public  schools  can,  of  course,  be  improved  by  the 
establishment    of    teachers'   examinations,  which 

163 


Can  School  Programmes 

secure  a  better  preparation  in  the  average  teacher, 
and  by  methods  of  supervision  which  make  known 
the  relative  merits  of  teachers  who  are  on  proba- 
tion. Good  progress  has  been  made  in  this  direc- 
tion during  the  past  ten  years  (1878-88). 

2.  The  second  direction  of  untiring  effort  should 
be  to  the  improvement  of  programmes ;  for  the  pro- 
gi'ammes  are  all-important  to  the  steady  develop- 
ment of  the  whole  system  of  schools  from  top  to 
bottom.  A  good  programme  will,  of  course,  not 
execute  itself ;  it  must  be  vivified  by  the  good  teach- 
er ;  but  an  injudicious  programme  is  an  almost  in- 
superable obstacle  to  the  improvement  of  a  city's 
schools.  As  a  rule,  the  American  programmes  do 
not  seem  to  be  substantial  enough,  from  the  first 
year  in  the  primary  school  onward.  There  is  not 
enough  meat  in  the  diet.  They  do  not  bring  the 
child  forward  fast  enough  to  maintain  his  interest, 
and  induce  him  to  put  forth  his  strength.  Frequent 
complaint  is  made  of  overpressure  in  the  public 
schools,  but  Friedrich  Paulsen  is  probably  right  in 
saying  that  it  is  not  work  which  causes  overfatigue 
so  much  as  lack  of  interest  and  lack  of  conscious 
progress.  The  sense  that,  work  as  he  may,  he  is  not 
accomplishing  anything  will  wear  upon  the  stout- 
est adult,  much  more  upon  a  child.  One  problem 
in  arithmetic  which  he  cannot  solve  will  try  a  child 
more  than  ten  he  can  solve.  One  hour  of  work  in 
which  he  can  take  no  intelligent  interest  will  wear 
him  out  more  than  two  hours  of  work  in  which  he 
cannot  help  being  interested.  Now,  the  trouble 
with  much  of  the  work  in  the  public  schools  is  that 

164 


Be  Shortened  and  Enriched? 

it  is  profoundly  and  inevitably  uninteresting  to  the 
childish  mind.  To  enrich  the  school  programme, 
therefore,  and  to  make  serious  subjects  follow  each 
other  in  it  more  rapidly  than  now,  is  not  neces- 
sarily to  increase  the  strain  upon  the  child ;  it  is, 
however,  necessarily  to  increase  the  skill  demanded 
of  the  teacher,  and  hence  the  improvement  of 
teachers  must  go  hand  in  hand  with  the  improve- 
ment of  programmes.  The  best  way  to  diminish 
strain  is  to  increase  interest,  attractiveness,  and 
the  sense  of  achievement  and  growth.  American 
teaching  in  school  and  college  has  been  chiefly 
driving  and  judging;  it  ought  to  be  leading  and 
inspiring.  Here  are  these  beautiful  fields  —  I  will 
show  you  the  way  through  them.  Here  are  these 
rewarding  exercises  —  I  will  show  you  how  to 
practise  them.  Here  are  these  heights  —  I  will 
lead  you  up  them. 

3.  Much  time  can  be  saved  in  primary  and  sec- 
ondary schools  by  diminishing  the  number  of  re- 
views, and  by  never  aiming  at  that  kind  of  accuracy 
of  attainment  which  reviews,  followed  by  examina- 
tions, are  intended  to  enforce.  Why  should  an 
accuracy  of  knowledge  and  of  statement  be  habitu- 
ally demanded  of  children  which  adults  seldom 
possess  f  How  many  well-educated  adults  can  add 
long  columns  of  figures  correctly,  or  find  the  least 
common  multiple  or  the  greatest  common  divisor 
of  six  or  eight  numbers!  Nothing  but  practice 
can  keep  one  skilful  in  these  exercises,  and  we 
may  reasonably  be  grateful  that  few  people  are 
compelled  to  keep  in  the  necessary  practice.  Few 
11*  165 


Can  School  Programmes 

adult  minds  retain  accurately  considerable  masses 
of  isolated  facts ;  and  it  is  commonly  observed  that 
minds  which  are  good  at  that  are  seldom  the  best 
minds.  Why  do  we  try  to  make  children  do  what 
we  do  not  try  to  do  ourselves  I  Instead  of  master- 
ing one  subject  before  going  to  another,  it  is  almost 
invariably  wise  to  go  on  to  a  superior  subject 
before  the  inferior  has  been  mastered  —  mastery 
being  a  very  rare  thing.  On  the  mastery  theory, 
how  much  new  reading  or  thinking  should  we 
adults  do  ?  Instead  of  reviewing  arithmetic,  study 
algebra ;  for  algebra  will  illustrate  arithmetic  and 
supply  many  examples  of  arithmetical  processes. 
Instead  of  re-reading  a  familiar  story,  read  a  new 
one;  it  will  be  vastly  more  interesting,  and  the 
common  words  will  all  recur  —  the  common  words 
being  by  far  the  most  valuable  ones.  Instead  of 
reviewing  the  physical  geography  of  North  Amer- 
ica, study  South  America.  There,  too,  the  pupil 
will  find  niountain-chains,  watersheds,  high  pla- 
teaus, broad  plains,  great  streams,  and  isothermal 
lines.  The  really  profitable  time  to  review  a  sub- 
ject is  not  when  we  have  just  finished  it,  but  when 
we  have  used  it  in  studying  other  subjects,  and 
have  seen  its  relations  to  other  subjects  and  what 
it  is  good  for.  For  example,  the  French  programme 
puts  a  review  of  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry 
into  the  last  year.  With  all  his  mathematical 
powers  strengthened  by  the  study  of  algebra  and 
geometry,  and  with  all  the  practice  of  arithmetic 
which  his  study  of  mensuration  and  algebra  has 
involved,  the  boy  returns  at  seventeen  to  arith- 

i66 


Be  Shortened  and  Enriched? 

metic  and  finds  it  infinitely  easier  than  he  did  at 
fourteen.  Further,  the  French  boy  has  escaped 
those  most  exasperating  of  arithmetical  puzzles 
which  a  little  easy  algebra  enables  one  to  solve 
with  facility.  Many  an  educated  New-Englander 
remembers  to  this  day  the  exasperation  he  felt 
when  he  discovered  that  problems  in  Colburn's 
Sequel,  over  which  he  had  struggled  for  hours, 
could  be  solved  in  as  many  minutes  after  he  had 
got  half-way  through  Sherwin's  Algebra.  Is  it 
not  an  abominable  waste  of  the  time  and  strength 
of  children  to  put  them  to  doing  in  a  difficult  way, 
never  used  in  real  life,  something  they  will  be  able 
to  do  in  an  easy  way  a  year  or  two  later  ?  To  in- 
troduce any  artificial  hardness  into  the  course  of 
training  that  any  human  being  has  to  follow  is  an 
unpardonable  educational  sin.  There  is  hardness 
enough  in  this  world  without  manufacturing  any, 
particularly  for  children.  On  careful  search  through 
all  the  years  of  the  public-school  programmes  now 
in  use,  many  places  will  be  found  where  time  can  be 
saved  and  strain  lessened  by  abandoning  the  effort 
to  obtain  an  exaggerated  and  wholly  unnatural 
accuracy  of  work.  It  is  one  of  the  worst  defects 
of  examinations  that  they  set  an  artificial  value 
upon  accuracy  of  attainment.  Good  examination 
results  do  not  always  prove  that  the  training  of 
the  children  examined  has  been  of  the  best  kind. 
4.  In  almost  all  the  numerous  collections  of 
school  statistics  now  published  in  this  country,  it 
appears  that  the  various  grades  contain  children 
much  too  old  for  them,  who  have  apparently  been 

167 


Can  School  Programmes 

held  back.  This  phenomenon  seems  to  be  due 
partly  to  the  ambition  of  teachers  and  partly  to 
the  caution  of  parents.  To  illustrate  with  a  spe- 
cific case:  in  the  Boston  primary  schools,  which 
are  intended  for  children  of  five  to  seven  years  of 
age  inclusive,  44  per  cent,  of  all  the  children  for 
three  years  past  were  over  seven ;  and  in  the  gram- 
mar schools  of  the  same  city,  which  are  intended 
for  children  of  from  eight  to  thirteen  years  in- 
clusive, from  20  to  24  per  cent,  were  over  thirteen. 
It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  the  average  age 
of  admission  to  the  Latin  School  is  not  eleven 
years,  as  indicated  in  the  programme,  but  thirteen 
years.  It  is  really  thirteen  years  and  three  months. 
For  three  years  past,  from  one  third  to  one  half  of 
the  graduating  classes  of  the  Boston  grammar 
schools  have  been  more  than  six  years  in  the 
schools,  the  programme  calling  for  but  six  years. 
In  the  Boston  primary  and  grammar  schools  the 
tendency  is  in  the  wrong  direction ;  that  is,  in  1887 
there  was  a  larger  proportion  of  pupils  over  age 
than  in  1877.  The  ambition  of  teachers  tends  to 
keep  children  too  long  in  the  several  grades,  because 
they  desire  to  have  their  pupils  appear  well  at  the 
periodical  examinations,  and  also  because  they  like 
to  keep  in  their  classes  the  bright  children  as  aids 
to  the  dull  ones.  The  caution  of  parents  tends  to 
produce  the  same  difficulty  because  they  fear  over- 
pressure; not  comprehending  that  with  children, 
as  with  adults,  it  is  not  work  so  much  as  worry 
that  injures,  or  finding  that  the  existing  system 
adds  worry  to  work.    The  exaggerated  notion  that 

i68 


Be  Shortened  and  Enriched? 

it  is  necessary  to  master  one  thing  before  a  child 
goes  to  another  is  also  responsible  for  the  retarda- 
tion of  children  on  their  way  through  the  regular 
course.  The  result  of  this  retardation  is  that  the 
boy  comes  too  late  to  the  high  school  or  to  the 
Latin  School,  and  so  fails  to  complete  that  higher 
course  if  he  is  going  into  business,  or  comes  too 
late  to  college  if  his  education  is  to  be  more  pro- 
longed. The  great  body  of  children  ought  to  pass 
regularly  from  one  grade  to  another,  without  de- 
lay, at  the  ages  set  down  on  the  programme ;  and 
any  method  of  examination  which  interferes  with 
this  regular  progress  does  more  harm  than  good. 
Of  late  years  many  experiments  have  been  made  on 
semiannual  promotions  and  other  means  of  hurry- 
ing forward  the  brighter  children.  The  aim  of 
these  experiments  is  laudable;  but  the  statistics 
suggest  a  doubt  whether  semiannual  promotions 
really  promote,  and  whether  they  do  not  disturb  to 
an  inexpedient  degree  the  orderly  progress  of  the 
school  work.  In  general  the  work  of  any  school 
must  be  laid  out  by  years,  and  on  this  account  ir- 
regular promotions  will  hardly  provide  a  remedy 
against  the  common  evil  of  retardation.^ 

5.  If  we  look  back  a  generation,  or  two  gener- 
ations, in  the  history  of  American  schools,  we  shall 
find  that  the  time  spent  in  school  by  children  dur- 
ing a  year  has  been  decidedly  reduced ;  although 
great  improvements  have  been  made  during  the 
same  period  in  the  ventilation  of  school  build- 

1  Irregular  and  rapid  promotion  has  been  greatly  facilitated  since 
1888. 

169 


Can  School  Programmes 

ings,  and  various  bodily  exercises,  such  as  singing, 
gymnastics,  and  military  drill,  have  been  intro- 
duced. This  reduction  of  school  hours  has  gone 
quite  far  enough,  and  some  steps  need  to  be  taken 
in  the  other  direction.  The  ideal  school  should  be 
so  conducted  that  the  child's  physique  is  not  im- 
paired by  attending  it,  or  his  enjoyment  of  his 
daily  life  lessened.  Then  longer  school  hours 
would  not  be  unsafe  or  unwelcome.  It  should  be 
the  teachers  that  need  rest  and  vacation,  and  not 
the  children.  In  cities  vacation  schools  seem  to 
be  a  desirable  addition  to  our  present  organization. 
A  long  vacation  may  be  a  very  good  thing  for  chil- 
dren who  have  at  home  some  intellectual  re- 
sources, or  who  can  go  to  the  country  or  to  the  sea 
in  vacation,  and  there  learn  some  things  not  found 
in  books  ;  but  for  children  of  ignorant  or  heedless 
parents,  who  have  nothing  of  intellectual  life  to 
offer  them  at  home,  a  long  vacation  is  likely  to  be 
a  serious  injury,  particularly  in  cities  and  large 
towns.  Vacation  schools  tend  to  bring  forward, 
or  keep  up,  the  least  favored  children,  thus  acceler- 
ating the  general  rate  of  progress  during  the  year. 
The  chief  objects  of  this  address  are,  first,  to  point 
out  a  serious  difficulty  which  is  embarrassing  the 
whole  course  of  American  education ;  and,  secondly, 
to  indicate  briefly  a  few  of  the  directions  in  which 
labor  may  be  wisely  spent  in  improving  our  school 
system,  to  the  general  end  that  the  pupils  may 
receive  a  better  training  in  a  shorter  time.  The 
professional  experience  and  zeal  of  superintendents 
and  teachers  will  know  how  to  devise  and  execute 
appropriate  measures  of  relief  and  improvement. 

170 


Be  Shortened  and  Enriched? 


FEENCH  AND  AMERICAN  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  PROGRAMMES 
COMPARED 

[To  illustrate  the  preceding  address.] 


Programme  of  Studies  (1885)  in 

THE  Secondary  Schools  of 

France. 

CliASSICAL    COUESE. 

[In  the  preparatory  class  and  in  the  eighth 
and  seventh  classes  the  mi7nber  of  hours 
of  teaching  per  week  is  20,  including  1 
hour  a  week  for  drawing.] 

PREPARATORY  CLASS.    AgeSyrs. 

French.  9i  hours  a  week.  Reading, 
spelling,  writing,  and  the  most  ele- 
mentary rules  of  grammar. 

GEEMA^f  OB  English.  4  h.  a  wk.  Ex- 
ercises in  reading  and  writing.  Pro- 
nunciation. Accent.  Indispensable 
paradigms. 

HiSTOET.  IJ  h.  a  wk.  Biographies  of 
illustrious  men — ^travelers,  patriots, 
inventors.  Talks  on  great  person- 
ages in  French  history  down  to 
1789. 

Geogeaphy.  IJ  h.  a  wk.  Meaning  of 
the  principal  terms  in  physical  geog- 
raphy, illustrated  from  the  town  or 
county.  Outlines  of  the  physical 
geography  of  France.  Geographical 
drawing,  illustrated  with  the  globe, 
chart,  and  blackboard.  The  conti- 
nents. 

Aeithmetic.  IJ  h.  a  wk.  Mental  arith- 
metic —  whole  numbers. 

Object-lessons.  1  h.  a  wk.  Coal, 
metals,  coins,  clouds,  rain,  snow,  ice, 
springs,  brooks,  lakes,  wells,  canals, 
sea-water,  salt,  wind,  storms,  famil- 
iar animals  and  plants.  [This  set 
of  subjects  lasts  2  yrs.] 

Deawing.  1  h.  a  wk.  Straight  lines, 
angles,  circles,  polygons,  stars,  ellip- 
ses, spirals,  the  curves  of  plants, 
first  notions  of  perspective.  [This 
set  of  subjects  lasts  3  yrs.] 

EIGHTH  CLASS.    Age  9  yrs. 

Feench.  9  h.  a  wk.  Reading,  spelling, 
writing,  grammar,  and  little  com- 
positions.   Descriptions  reproduced. 

German  oe  English.  4  h.  a  wk.  First 
notions  of  grammar,  reading,  writ- 
ing, spelling,  common  phrases.  Eng- 
lish text-book  —  Miss  Edgeworth  s 
Tales. 

HiSTOET.  1  Jh.  a  wk.  Outline  of  French 
history  to  Louis  XI. 


Programme  of  Studies  (1887) 
IN  the  Boston  Grammar 
Schools  (First  Three  Years) 
AND  the  Public  Latin  School. 


[In  the  Grammar  Schools  the  number  of 
hours  of  teaching  per  week  is  22,  includ- 
ing the  drawing  and,  music] 


SIXTH  CLASS.  Grammar  School  (1st 
year  of  course).    Age  8  yrs. 

English.  11  hours  a  week.  Oral  and 
written  exercises.  Reading.  Sci- 
ence lessons,  pictures  illustrating 
trades,  etc.,  stories  reproduced. 
Recitation.  Writing  from  black- 
board and  from  dictation.  Letter- 
writing.    An  auth«rized  reader. 


Geogeaphy.  2  h.  a  wk.  The  earth  a 
ball.  Maps.  Hemispheres,  conti- 
nents, oceans,  climates,  most  impor- 
tant countries,  peoples,  cities. 


Arithmetic.  4J  h.  a  wk.  Whole  num- 
bers to  100,000.  Decimals.  U.  S. 
money.  Liquid  and  dry  measures. 
Oral  exercises. 

Elementaey  Science.  2  h.  a  wk.  Hu- 
man body  with  reference  to  hygiene. 
Plants  (May  to  July),  seedlings, 
sponge,  coral,  oyster,  clam,  snail. 
Shells,  air,  wind,  rain,  frost,  snow, 
hail,  ice. 

Deawing.  IJ  h.  a  wk.  Circle,  ellipse, 
oval.  Curves.  Polygons.  Drawing 
from  dictation  and  from  memory. 

Music.  1  h.  a  wk.  Exercises  and 
songs.    Writing  exercises. 

FIFTH  CLASS  (Grammar  School).  Age 
9  yrs. 

English.    11  h.  a  wk.    Same  methods 

as  in  preceding  year. 
Elementaey  Science.    2  h.  a  wk.    Hy- 

fiene.  Plants  (Sept.  to  Nov.,  and 
lay  to  July).  Animals  —  lobster 
and  insects.  Sun,  moon,  and  stars. 
Drainage  of  vicinity.  Rocks  and 
soils. 


171 


Can  School  Programmes 


TRENCH  PROOKAHHB. 

Geography.  IJ  h.  a  wk.  Elementary 
geography  of  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
America,  and  Oceanica.  Voyages  of 
discovery. 

ARITHMETIC!.  2  h.  a  wk.  Whole  num- 
bers. Exercises  in  mental  arithme- 
tic.   Easy  problems. 

Object-lessons,  l  h.  a  wk.  Exercises 
on  some  of  the  objects  mentioned  in 
the  programme  for  the  preparatory 
class. 

Drawing.  1  h.  a  wk.  Same  as  for  the 
preparatory  class. 

SEVENTH  CLASS.    Age  10  yrs. 

French.  9  h.  a  wk.  As  in  previous 
years.     Syntax. 

German  or  English.  4  h.  a  wk. 
Grammar.  Auxiliary  and  irregular 
verbs.  Easy  prose.  Exercises  in 
reading  and  conversation.  English 
texts  —  Sanf  ord  and  Merton,  and  Old 
Poz. 

History.  IJ  h.  a  wk.  History  of 
Prance  from  Louis  XI  to  1815. 

Geography.  IJ  h.  a  wk.  Elementary 
geography  of  France. 

Arithmetic  and  Geometry.  2  h.  a  wk. 
Whole  numbers  and  decimals.  Met- 
ric system.     Geometrical  figures. 

Stones  and  Soils.  1  h.  a  wk.  Lime- 
stones, lime-kilns,  mortars,  plaster, 
clay,  bricks,  pottery,  quartz,  flint, 
grindstones,  granite,  sands,  drift, 
mold,  soils,  fossils,  quarries,  vol- 
canoes. 

Drawing.  1  h.  a  wk.  Same  as  for  the 
preparatory  class. 


[In  the  sixth  and  higher  classes  thenum- 
her  of  hours  of  instruction  per  week  is 
20,  wUh  2  hours  of  drawing  in  addi- 
tion.] 

SIXTH  CLASS.    Age  11  yrs. 

French.  3  h.  a  wk.  Grammar.  Ex- 
tracts in  prose  and  verse  from 
French  classics.  La  Fontaine's  fa- 
bles.  Simple  compositions. 

Latin.  10  h.  a  wk.  Elements  of  gram- 
mar. Viri  Rom».  Translation  of 
French  phrases  into  Latin. 

German  or  English.  2  h.  a  wk.  Gram- 
mar, reading,  conversation,  written 
exercises.  English  texts  —  Edge- 
worth's  Tales,  Aikin  and  Bar- 
bauld's  Evenings  at  Home,  Primer 
of  English  history. 

History.  2  h.  a  wk.  Ancient  history 
of  the  Orient  —  Egypt,  Assyria,  Pal- 
estine, Phoenicia,  Persia. 

Geography.  1  h.  a  wk.  Europe  and 
the  Mediterranean  basin. 


boston  pboobamhe. 

Geography.  2  h.  a  wk.  Important 
countries— our  own  first.  Natural 
features,  climate,  productions,  peo 
pie,  government,  customs,  and  cities 

Arithmetic.  4i  h.  a  wk.  Whole  num 
hers  and  decimals  continued.  Avoir 
dupois  weight,  and  units  of  time 
Oral  problems  in  common  fractions. 

Drawing.  IJ  h.  a  wk.  Objects  in  two 
dimensions.  Octagon,  spiral,  simple 
ornament. 

Music.  1  h.  a  wk.  Chromatic  scale. 
Breathing.    Songs. 

FOURTH  CLASS  (Grammar  School). 
Age  10  yrs. 

English.  10  h.  a  wk.  Oral  and  written 
expression,  including  writing  5  h. 
Reading  5  h.  More  advanced  books 
and  methods. 

Hygiene.    1  h.  a  wk.    Continued. 

Arithmetic.  4J  h.  a  wk.  Common 
fractions.  Long,  square,  and  solid 
measures.    Decimals  continued. 

Geography.  3  h.  a  wk.  Meridians  and 
parallels,  zones,  winds,  and  ocean 
currents,  climate  as  affecting  man. 
Physical  geography  of  North  Amer- 
ica, South  America,  and  Europe. 
Map-drawing.  Apparent  motions  of 
sun,  moon,  and  stars.    Seasons. 

Observation  Lessons.  1  h.  a  wk.  Com- 
mon metals,  minerals,  and  rocks. 

Drawing.  IJh.  awk.  Ornament.  Geo- 
metric forms.  Elementary  design 
from  plant  forms.  Objects  based  on 
the  oval.  Cylinder,  cone,  and  vase. 
Drawing  from  memory. 

Music.  1  h.  a  wk.  Scale  and  staff  in- 
tervals. Different  keys  to  three 
sharps  and  four  flats. 

[In  the  Latin  School  the  number  of  Iwunt 
of  instruction  per  week  is  20,  including 
2  hours  of  military  driU.] 


SIXTH  CLASS  (Latin  School).    Age  11 

yrs. 

English.  Not  less  than  3  h.  a  wk. 
Reading  aloud  and  recitation  of  se- 
lections from  prose  and  poetry. 
Reading  the  history  of  the  United 
States.  Grammar.  Oral  and  writ- 
ten abstracts.     Writing.     Spelling. 

Latin.  Regular  forms.  Latin  into 
English,  and  English  into  Latin. 
Writing  Latin  from  dictation.  Vo- 
cabulary. 

Geography.  Physical  and  political 
geography,  with  map-drawing  of  the 
Unitea  States,  the  countries  of  Eu- 
rope, and  the  other  countries  of 
North  America. 

Arithmetic  Review.  Metric  system. 
Percentage,  with  applications. 


172 


Be  Shortened  and  Enriched? 


FBENCH  PROGRAMME. 

Arithmetic  and  Geometry.  1  h.  a  wk. 
Common      fractions.  Decimals. 

Sphere,  poles,  meridians,  parallels. 
Latitude  and  longitude. 

Zoology,  l  h.  a  wk.  Man.  Vertebrates. 
Articulates.  Worms.  MoUusks. 
Fauna  of  the  principal  regions  of 
the  globe. 

Drawing.  2  h.  a  -wk.  Perspective  with 
shadows.  Drawing  from  ornaments 
in  relief,  from  architectural  frag- 
ments, from  the  human  head.  [These 
subjects  serve  for  2  yrs.] 


BOSTON  PROGRAMME. 

Geometry.    Oral.     Forms  and  simple 

propositions. 
Physiology.  Oral  instruction,  to  begin 

March  1. 
Military  Drill.    2  h.  a  wk. 


FIFTH  CLASS.    Age  12  yrs. 

French.  3  h.  a  wk.  As  in  preceding 
year.  Extracts  from  La  Fontaine, 
BoUeau,  Racine,  F6nelon,  Buflon. 

Latin.  10  h.  a  wk.  to  Jan.  1,  8  h.  there- 
after. Grammar,  syntax,  elements 
of  prosody.  Extracts  from  Phaedrus, 
Ovid,  and  Nepos.  Latin  theme,  writ- 
ten and  oral. 

Greek.  2  h.  a  wk.  from  Jan.  1.  Gram- 
mar, accent,  paradigms. 

German  or  English.  2  h.  a  wk.  Read- 
ing, writing,  conversation,  transla- 
tion. English  texts  —  Scott's  Tales 
of  a  Grandfather,  Franklin's  Auto- 
biography, Primer  of  the  History  of 
Greece. 

History.  2  h.  a  wk.  Histoiy  of  Greece. 

Geography.  1  h.  a  wk.  The  oceans. 
Physical  geography  of  Africa,  Asia, 
Oceanica,  and  America.  Principal 
states,  capitals,  and  commercial 
ports.    European  possessions. 

Arithmetic  and  Geometry.  1  h.  a  wk. 
Rule  of  three.  Interest,  discount, 
measurement  of  areas  and  volumes. 

Botany.  1  h.  a  wk.  Organs  of  a  plant 
— root,  stem,  leaf,  flower,  fruit,  seed. 
Divisions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
Ulustrated.  Outlines  of  the  flora  of 
the  principal  regions  of  the  globe. 

Drawing.    See  the  preceding  year. 

FOURTH  CLASS.    Age  13  yrs. 

French.  2h.  awk.  Grammar  finished. 
Extracts  from  Racine,  Madame  de 
S6vign6,  and  Montesquieu.  Differ- 
ences between  French  and  Latin 
construction. 

Latin.  5  h.  a  wk.  first  J  yr.;  6  h.  a  wk. 
second  J  yr.  Extracts  from  Vergil 
and  Ovid.  Caesar's  Gallic  War. 
(^uintius  Curtius.  Latin  composi- 
tion, oral  and  written. 

Greek.  0  h.  a  wk.  Grammar,  elements 
of  syntax,  simple  compositions.  Ex- 
tracts from  Xenophon  and  Lucian. 


FIFTH  CLASS  (Latin  School).    Age  12 

yrs. 

English.  Not  less  than  3  h.  a  wk.  Prose 
—  Tanglewood  Tales,  Autobiogra- 
phy of  Franklin,  History  of  Eng- 
land ;  poetry  —  selections  from 
Hobnes,  Bryant,  and  Scott.  Meth- 
ods those  of  previous  years. 

Latin.  Translation  of  easy  prose  and 
of  CsBsar's  Gallic  War,  Bks.  I  and 
II.  Unprepared  translation.  Writ- 
ing from  dictation.  Committing 
passages  to  memory.  English  into 
Latin — sentences  like  Caesar's. 


Geography.      Physical    and   political 

feography  of  South  America,  West 
ndies,  Asia,  Africa,  and  Oceanica, 
with  map-drawing. 

Arithmetic.  Oral  and  written.  Per- 
centagej  including  simple  and  com 
pound  interest,  discount,  and  par- 
tial payments.  Compound  numbers 
Ratio  and  proportion.  Powers  and 
roots. 

Geometry.  Mensuration,  with  oral 
geometry. 

Zoology.  Oral  instruction,  to  begin 
March  1. 

Military  Drill.    2  h.  a  wk. 

FOURTH  CLASS  (Latin  School).  Age 
13  yrs. 

English.  Not  less  than  3  h.  a  wk. 
Prose  —  Church's  Stories  from  Ho- 
mer, Two  Years  before  the  Mast, 
Plutarch  (Greek  Lives) ;  poetry— se- 
lections from  Lowell,  Gray,  and 
Goldsmith.  Abstracts,  descriptions, 
oral  exercises. 

Latin.  Caesar's  Gallic  War.Bks.  m  and 
IV;  Ovid,  1000  lines;  ^neid,  Bk.  I. 
Some  prosody.  Same  methods  as 
before. 

French  or  German.  Pronunciation. 
Regular  verbs.  Translation  of  easy 
prose.  Writing  from  dictation.  Vo- 
cabulary. English  into  French  or 
German. 


173 


Can  School  Programmes 


FRKNOH  PROGRAM  MI. 

German  OR  English.  2h.  awk.  Read- 
ing, writing,  conversation,  transla- 
tion. English  texts  —  De  Foe's  Rob- 
inson Crusoe,  Irving' s  Voyages  of 
Columbus,  Miss  Comer's  History 
of  Rome. 

History.    2h.  awk.    History  of  Rome. 

Geography.  1  h.  a  wk.  Geography  of 
France.    French  colonies. 

Geometry.  1  h.  a  wk.  Straight  line,  an- 
gles, triangles,  parallelogram,  circle, 
secant,  tangent,  measure  of  angles. 

Geology,  l  h.  a  wk.  first  J  yr.  The 
principal  rocks.  Continuous  changes 
of  the  earth's  crust.  Principal  ge- 
olo^c  periods,  primary,  secondary, 
tertiary,  and  glacial. 

Drawing.  2  h.  a  wk.  From  architec- 
tural fra^ents.  The  human  figure, 
from  prints  and  bas-reliefs.  Some 
mechanical  drawing  of  architectural 
designs. 

THIRD  CLASS.    AgeUyrs. 

French.  2  h.  a  wk.  Authors— Cor- 
neille,  Racine,  Boileau,  Bossuet, 
F^nelon.  Compositions.  Outlines 
of  literary  history.  Free  library  of 
French  authors. 

Latin.  5h.  awk.  Grammar  reviewed. 
Prosody.  Considerable  portions  of 
Livy,  (Scero,  Pliny,  Sallust,  "Vergil. 

Greek.  5h.  awk.  Grammar  continued. 
Extracts  from  Homer,  Herodotus, 
Xenophon,  Lucian. 

German  or  English.  2  h.  a  wk.  All 
varieties  of  instruction.  English 
texts— Vicar  of  Wakefield,  Tales 
from  Shakspere,  Macaulay's  His- 
tory of  England,  Vol.  I. 

History.  2  h.  a  wk.  History  of  Eu- 
rope, and  particularly  of  France, 
from  395  to  1270. 

Geography.  1  h.  a  wk.  Geography  of 
Europe,  physical,  political,  and  eco- 
nomic.   Geography  of  each  state. 

Arithmetic,  Algebra,  and  Geometry. 
2  h.  a  wk.  Arithmetic  finished,  in- 
cluding square  root  and  proportions. 
First  principles  of  algebra.  Plane 
geometry  finished  through  area  of 
the  circle. 

Physics.  2  h.  a  wk.  J  the  yr.  Gravity, 
properties  of  liquids  and  gases.  Spe- 
cific gravity.    Barometer.    Heat. 

Drawing.  2  h.  a  wk.  Decorative  fig- 
ures. Caryatids.  Friezes.  Doric, 
Ionic,  and  Corinthian  orders.  The 
human  figure,  and  figures  of  animals. 

SECOND  CLASS.    Age  15  yrs. 

French.  3  h.  a  wk.  Selections  from 
ten  authors  covering  the  sixteenth 
to  the  nineteenth  centuries  inclu- 
sive. 


boston  programme. 

Geography.  General  reviews.  Astro- 
nomical and  physical  phenomena. 
Political  and  commercial  relations 
of  different  countries. 

History.  History  of  Greece,  with  his- 
torical geography. 

Zoology.  Oral  instruction,  to  begin 
March  1. 

Algebra.  Including  the  generaliza- 
tions of  arithmetic. 

Military  Drill.    2  h.  a  wk. 


THIRD  CLASS  (Latin  School).  Age 
14  yrs. 

English.  Not  less  than  3  h.  a  wk. 
Prose  —  Plutarch  (Roman  Lives),  Ad- 
dison's papers  in  the  Spectator,  one 
of  Scott's  novels;  poetry  —  Macau- 
lay's  Lays,  some  of  Tennyson's, 
Emerson  s,  and  Wordsworth's  po- 
ems. Abstracts,  compositions,  and 
translations  from  a  foreign  lan- 
guage. 

Latin,  ^neid,  Bks.  II-IV.  Sallust's 
Catiline.  Easy  passages  from  Cicero. 
Unprepared  translation.  Commit- 
ting passages  to  memory.  English 
into  Latin. 

Greek.  Forms.  Translation  of  25  pp. 
of  the  Anabasis.  Unprepared  trans- 
lation. Greek  from  dictation.  Vo- 
cabulary.   English  into  Greek. 

French  or  German.  Reading.  Oral 
and  written  translation  of  modem 
prose.  Dictation.  Committing  pas- 
sages to  memory.  Vocabulary.  Eng- 
lish into  French  or  German. 

History.  History  of  Rome,  with  his- 
torical geography. 

Botany  or  Physics.    To  begin  March  1 . 

Algebra.  Including  the  generalizations 
of,  and  applications  to,  arithmetic. 

Military  Drill.    2  h.  a  wk. 


SECOND  CLASS  (Latin  School).  Age 
15  yrs. 

English.  One  play  of  Shakspere. 
Part  of  the  English  required  for  ad- 
mission to  coflege.  Recitation  of 
prose  and  verse.  'Translations.  Com- 
positions. 


174 


Be  Shortened  and  Enriched? 


FRENCH  PKOGRAMMK. 

Latik.  4  h.  a  wk.  Prosody.  The  me- 
ters of  Horace.  Authors  —  Vergil, 
Horace,  Cicero,  Livy,  and  Tacitus. 

Greek.  5h.  awk.  Grammar  reviewed. 
Considerable  portions  of  Homer, 
Euripides,  Plato,  Xenophon,  and 
Plutarch. 

Literary  History.  1  h.  a  wk.  is  de- 
voted to  the  history  of  Greek  (10 
lectures),  Latin  (10  lectures),  and 
French  (15  lectures)  literatures.  This 
hour  is  taken  from  the  hours  appro- 
priated to  the  three  languages. 

German  or  English.  2  h.  a  wk. 
Grammar  reviewed.  Reading,  con- 
versation, translation,  composition. 
English  texts — Julius  Caesar,  The 
Deserted  VUlage,  The  Traveler  —  a 
romance  of  Scott,  A  Christmas  Carol, 
David  Copperfleld,  extracts  from 
English  historians. 

History.  2  h.  a  wk.  History  of  Eu- 
rope, and  particularly  of  France, 
from  1270  to  1610. 

Geography.  1  h.  a  wk.  Geography  of 
Africa,  Asia,  Oceanica,  and  America. 
Meteorology.  Climatology.  Pro- 
ductions. "Commercial  relations. 
Steam  and  telegraph  lines. 

Algebra  and  Geometry.  2  h.  a  wk. 
Algebra  completed  through  equa- 
tions of  the  second  degree.  Solid 
geometry  to  the  cone. 

Physics.  2  h.  a  wk.  i  the  yr.  Electri- 
city and  magnetism.    Acoustics. 

Drawing.  2  h.  a  wk.  Same  as  in  the 
preceding  year. 

CLASS  OF  RHETORIC.    Age  16  yrs. 


French.  4  h.  a  wk.  Eleven  authors 
of  seventeen,  eighteen,  and  nine- 
teen centuries.  Fifteen  lessons  on 
the  history  of  French  literature  from 
the  time  of  Louis  XIIL 

Latin.  4h.  awk.  Portions  of  Terence, 
Lucretius,  Vergil,  Horace,  Cicero, 
Livy,  and  Tacitus. 

Greek.  4  h.  a  wk.  Portions  of  Homer, 
Sophocles,  Aristophanes,  Plato,  and 
Demosthenes. 

German  or  English.  2  h.  a  wk.  Au- 
thors in  English  — Shakspere, 
Washington  Irving,  Byron,  Tenny- 
son, Dickens,  and  George  Eliot. 

History.  2h.  awk.  History  of  Europe, 
and  particularly  of  France,  from 
1610  to  1789. 

Geography,  l  h.  a  wk.  Physical,  po- 
litical, administrative,  and  economic 
geography  of  France  and  its  col- 
onies. 

Geometry  and  Cosmography.  2  h.  a 
wk.  Solid  geometry  finished  — 
through  the  sphere.  The  celestial 
sphere.  Earth,  sun,  time,  moon, 
eclipses,  planets,  stars,  universal 
gravitation,  tides. 


BOSTON  PROGRAMME. 

Latin.  Cicero,  four  orations.  Vergil's 
Bucolics,  and  review  of  .iEneid,  Bks. 
I-IV.  Translation  at  sight.  Com- 
mitting to  memory,  vocabulary. 
English  into  Latin. 

Greek.  Anabasis,  I-FV.  Sight  transla- 
tions from  Xenophon.  Greek  from 
dictation.  Vocabulary.  English  into 
Greek. 


French  or  German.    As  in  previous 
year 


History  and  Geography.  History  and 
geography  of  Greece  and  Borne  com- 
pleted. 


Algebra.  Through  quadratic  equa- 
tions. Algebra  and  arithmetic  re- 
viewed. 

Geometry.    Plane  geometry  begun. 

Botany  or  Physics.    To  begin  March  1. 

Military  Drill.    2  h.  a  wk. 


FIRST  CLASS  (Latin  School). 

yrs. 


Age  16 


English.  The  English  required  for  ad- 
mission to  college.  Recitation  of 
prose  and  poetry.  Translations  and 
compositions. 

Latin,  ^neid,  Bks.  V-IX.  Cicero, 
three  orations.  Translation  at  sight. 
Methods  as  in  previous  year. 

Greek.  Selections  from  Herodotus. 
Translation  at  sight.  Hiad,  Bks.  I- 
III,  with  prosody.  Greek  composi- 
tion. 

French  or  German.  Prepared  and 
sight  translation  from  one  or  more 
French  or  German  classics.  Read- 
ing a  history  of  France  or  Germany, 
Other  methods  as  in  previous  years. 


Geometry.   Plane  geometry  completed. 
Military  Drill.    2  h.  a  wk. 


175 


Can  School  Programmes  be  Sbortemd? 


FRENCH  PROGRAMME. 

Chemistry.  2  h.  a  wk.  first  J  yr.  Hy- 
drogen, oxygen,  nitrogen,  chlorine, 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  carbon,  sili- 
con, and  tneir  most  important  com- 
binations. General  notions  of  the 
metals,  oxides,  and  salts.  Principal 
organic  compounds.  Nomenclature 
and  notation. 

Drawing.  The  human  head  from  na- 
ture. Landscape  from  prints  and 
nature. 


BOSTON  programme. 


CLASS  OP  PHILOSOPHY.  Age  17 
yrs. 

Psychology,  Logic,  Ethics,  and 
Metaphysics.  9  h.  a  wk.,  of  which 
8  h.  are  for  the  general  course  and 
two  French  authors,  and  1  h.  for  one 
Latin  and  one  Greek  author.  The 
two  French  authors  are  chosen  each 
vear  from  a  list  containing  works  of 
bescartes,  Malebranche,  Pascal, 
Leibnitz,  Condillac,  and  Cousin. 
The  course  includes  an  account  of 
sensibility,  intelllgence.and  volition, 
of  formal  and  applied  logic,  of  con- 
science and  duty,  of  family  and 
country,  of  poUtieal  duties,  of  labor, 
capital,  and  property,  of  immortal- 
jty  and  natural  religion. 

History.  2  h.  a  wk.  Contemporary 
history,  1789  to  1875. 

Arithmetic,  Algebra,  and  Geome- 
try. 4  h.  a  wk.  Review  of  the 
whole  course  in  these  subjects. 

Physics.  2  h.  a  wk.  Optics.  Applica- 
tions of  physics — steam-engines, 
magneto-electric  machines,  electro- 
plating, telephone. 

Physiology,  Animal  and  Vegetable. 
2  h.  a  wk.  Nutrition,  organs  of 
sense,  voice,  apparatus  for  move- 
ment, nerves.  Vegetable  nutrition 
and  reproduction. 

Drawing.  2  h.  a  wk.  Same  as  in  the 
preceding  year. 


[There  is  no  equivalent  in  the  Boston  pro- 
gramme for  the  Class  of  Philosophy  in 
the  French  programme.  ] 


176 


AN  AVERAGE  MASSACHUSETTS 
GRAMMAR  SCHOOL 

ADDRESS 
At  the  Massachusetts  Teachers'  Association,  November  28,  1890 


AN  AVERAGE  MASSACHUSETTS 
GRAMMAR  SCHOOL 


I  AM  going  to  be  rash  enough  to  talk  to  an  audi- 
ence intimately  acquainted  with  the  Massachu- 
setts grammar  schools,  about  the  actual  work  ac- 
complished in  that  kind  of  school,  although  I  have 
not,  myself,  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  that 
work  based  on  long  observation  and  experience. 
I  am  distinctly  an  outsider  in  regard  to  the  gram- 
mar-school system  of  Massachusetts.  I  was  never 
either  a  pupil  or  a  teacher  in  a  grammar  school,  and 
I  have  paid  but  few  visits  to  schools  of  that  grade. 
I  must  confess,  at  the  start,  that  I  am  something 
worse  than  a  mere  outsider.  I  am  an  outsider  with 
a  grievance;  and  I  have  observed,  in  regard  to 
critics  of  university  methods,  that  an  outsider  with 
a  grievance  is  an  awkward  kind  of  critic  to  deal 
with.  At  any  rate,  the  fact  that  the  outside  critic 
has  a  grievance  is  something  that  he  should  reveal 
at  the  very  outset  of  his  criticism.  My  grievance 
is  that  the  American  boy  comes  to  college  at  an 
average  age  of  nineteen,  knowing  very  much  less 

179 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

than  he  ought  to  know,  and  very  much  less  than 
boys  of  that  age  do  know  in  other  countries,  such 
as  Scandinavia,  Germany,  France,  and  England. 
For  some  years  I  have  been  searching  for  the  cause 
of  that  inferiority  of  the  American  boy.  I  cannot 
believe  that  it  is  in  the  stock,  or  in  the  climate ;  and 
I  am  sure  that  it  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  nature 
of  our  political  institutions.  Two  years  ago  I 
made  a  careful  examination  of  the  courses  of  study, 
or  programmes,  of  the  best  high  schools  and  acade- 
mies in  this  country ;  and  although  I  succeeded 
in  finding  some  places  where  the  programmes 
might  be  condensed  and  enriched,  yet  I  was  satis- 
fied that  the  main  sources  of  the  evil  I  had  in  mind 
were  not  in  those  programmes.  Lately  I  have  been 
inquiring  into  the  courses  of  study  in  primary  and 
grammar  schools,  but  always  with  this  thought  in 
my  mind:  Can  I  find  some  leak,  some  waste  of 
time,  or  some  misdirected  labor,  on  the  part  of 
pupil  or  teacher?  Can  I  find  in  either  sort 
of  school  the  promising  place  at  which  remedies 
for  the  confessed  inferiority  of  our  boys  at  nine- 
teen should  be  applied  f 

When  we  try  to  examine  the  grammar-school 
system  in  the  United  States,  the  first  thing  we 
want  to  know  is  what  is  really  done  in  an  average 
grammar  school.  Now,  that  is  more  than  any- 
body can  find  out  in  this  country.  I  have  tried 
faithfully  to  learn  what  is  accomplished  by  a  boy 
or  girl  in  a  fair  sample  of  the  American  grammar 
school,  and  the  main  result  of  my  labors  is  the  as- 
surance that  nobody  can  ascertain  what  that  fair 

1 80 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

accomplishment  is.  I  defy  anybody  to  ascertain 
what  it  is.  There  are  many  causes  for  this  condi- 
tion of  things.  In  the  first  place,  we  have  no  elab- 
orate system  of  national  or  State  superintendence, 
and  no  permanent  bodies  of  experienced  inspectors. 
Public  education  is  organized  by  municipalities 
and  towns,  and  these  municipalities  and  towns  con- 
duct their  affairs  quite  separately,  and  with  very  lit- 
tle cooperation  or  coordination.  There  is,  therefore, 
no  widely  accepted  standard  for  grammar  schools. 
But,  again,  in  the  grammar  schools  of  a  single  mu- 
nicipality, great  diversities  are  apt  to  exist.  The 
amount  of  work  accomplished  in  one  grammar 
school  is  often  very  different  from  the  amount  of 
work  accomplished  in  another  grammar  school 
within  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  Thus,  the  grammar 
schools  of  the  city  of  Boston  vary  greatly,  not 
only  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  work  done  by  the 
pupils,  but  to  the  methods  of  the  teachers  and  the 
aims  of  the  principals.  Often  in  a  single  city, 
therefore,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  ascertain  what 
the  average  work  is  in  an  average  grammar  school. 
Still  further,  the  rural  schools  present  an  extraor- 
dinary variety  of  conditions  and  results. 

My  subject,  therefore,  is  an  extremely  difficult 
one.  I  have  to  confess,  at  the  start,  that  I  cannot 
tell  you  what  the  actual  work  of  an  average  Massa- 
chusetts grammar  school  is.  My  only  resource  is 
to  take  a  particular  grammar  school  in  a  city  — 
not  one  of  the  largest  cities,  nor  yet  one  of  the 
smallest ;  not  the  best  school  in  the  city,  nor  yet 
the  worst;  a  school  with  a  good  principal,  a  fair 
12*  i8i 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

set  of  teachers,  and  a  mixed  set  of*  pupils  —  mixed 
as  regards  nationality,  religion,  and  social  condi- 
tion.   The  actual  work  of  that  one  school  I  think 

1  have  got  a  fair  idea  of ;  yet  I  do  not  pretend  to 
be  able  to  state  it  with  any  precision,  for  the  rea- 
son—  and  this  is  a  reason  which  applies  to  the 
larger  number  of  our  grammar  schools  throughout 
the  State  and  the  country  —  that  the  work  in  the 
different  rooms  of  that  school  differs  considerably 
in  the  same  grade.  This  difference  is  attributable  to 
the  difference  in  the  teachers.  One  teacher  is  much 
more  alert  and  stimulating  than  another,  and  there- 
fore accomplishes  more  with  her  pupils.  In  spite 
of  these  difficulties,  I  have  found  the  examination 
of  the  actual  work  done  in  this  tolerably  represen- 
tative school  to  be  full  of  suggestions.  Let  me 
deal  first  with  the  question  of  school-time. 

In  this  rather  small  city,  which  possesses  only  a 
moderate  number  of  grammar  schools,  the  school- 
time  is  four  and  a  half  hours  a  day  for  five  days  in 
the  week ;  namely,  from  9  to  11 :  30  a.  m.  and  from 

2  to  4  p.  M.,  with  no  session  on  Saturday.  During 
the  darkest  part  of  the  year  the  afternoon  session 
is  from  1 :  30  to  3 :  30.  My  first  criticism  is  that 
this  school-time  is  too  short.  Within  that  short 
limit  of  weekly  time  we  cannot  accomplish  what  it 
is  reasonable  to  expect  to  accomplish  with  children 
from  nine  to  fifteen  years  of  age.  Foreign  schools 
have  more  time,  and  this  is  one  of  the  reasons  why 
they  accomplish  more.  I  believe  that  it  has  been 
a  mistake  to  give  up  the  whole  of  the  Saturday  ses- 
sion, and  that  we  had  better  return  to  the  method 

182 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

of  our  forefathers,  namely,  to  half-sessions  on 
Wednesdays  and  Saturdays.  I  think  we  ought  to 
hold  school  on  the  four  full  days  of  the  week  five 
hours  a  day,  and  on  each  of  the  two  half -days  of  the 
week  three  hours  a  day,  making  twenty-six  hours 
instead  of  twenty-two  and  a  half.  That  gain,  when 
multiplied  by  the  number  of  weeks  in  the  school 
year,  would  be  important. 

I  must  also  express  the  conviction  that  the  chil- 
dren cannot  afford  to  have  so  large  a  proportion  of 
vacation  in  the  year  as  is  now  given  them,  particu- 
larly in  cities  where  the  great  majority  of  children 
are  unable  to  leave  town,  and  have  no  adequate 
occupation  for  the  summer  vacation  of  two  months 
or  more.  The  teachers  need  the  vacation,  but  the 
pupils  do  not.  Indeed,  most  of  them  are  harmed 
or  suffer  loss  by  it.  Summer  half-time  schools 
would  increase  somewhat  the  total  cost  of  urban 
schools;  but  the  proportional  value  received  for 
that  expenditure  would  be  a  large  one,  both  for 
parents  and  for  children. 

"When  we  ask  for  more  time  for  schools,  we  are 
always  met  by  this  objection:  The  children  can 
hardly  stand  the  stress  to  which  they  are  now  sub- 
jected. Are  we  to  overtax  them  still  more?  I 
believe  there  are  three  good  answers  to  this  objec- 
tion. The  first  is  ventilation.  If  you  will  take 
the  excess  of  carbonic  acid  out  of  the  school-room, 
you  can  keep  the  children  in  it  longer,  without 
hurting  them  as  much  as  you  do  now.  The  same 
may  be  said  of  the  teachers.  The  strain  upon 
teachers  is  greatly  increased  by  the  badness  of  the 

183 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

air  in  which  they  habitually  work.  Secondly,  the 
stress  upon  the  children  can  be  greatly  diminished 
by  the  systematic  use  of  gymnastic  movements 
during  school  hours  and  in  the  school-rooms.  I 
submit  that  the  American  people  ought  to  learn 
from  the  experience  of  European  nations  in  this 
respect.  It  has  been  conclusively  demonstrated 
that  brief  intervals  for  gymnastic  exercises 
throughout  the  public  schools  of  Scandinavia  and 
Germany  do  keep  the  children  in  good  condition, 
and  do  enable  them  to  sustain  without  injury  a 
greater  amount  of  mental  work  than  I  have  just 
suggested  for  American  children.  Thirdly,  the 
stress  or  strain  upon  children  can  be  much  dimin- 
ished by  making  the  work  interesting  to  them, 
instead  of  dull,  as  much  of  it  now  is.  It  is  extraor- 
dinary how  fatigue  is  prevented  or  diminished  by 
mental  interest.  As  I  have  lately  read  the  readers 
used  in  my  sample  grammar  school,  worked  its 
sums,  and  read  its  geography  and  its  book  on  man- 
ners, it  has  seemed  to  me  that  the  main  character- 
istic of  the  instruction,  as  developed  through  those 
books, —  unless  lightened  by  the  personality  of  the 
teacher, —  is  dullness,  a  complete  lack  of  human 
interest,  and  a  consequent  lack  in  the  child  of  the 
sense  of  increasing  power.  Nothing  is  so  fatiguing 
as  dull,  hopeless  effort,  with  the  feeling  that,  do 
one's  best,  one  cannot  succeed.  That  is  the  condi- 
tion of  too  many  children  in  American  schools  — 
not  the  condition  for  half  an  hour,  but  the  chronic 
condition  day  after  day  and  month  after  month. 
Make  the  work  interesting,  and  give  the  children 

184 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

the  sense  of  success,  and  the  stress  which  is  now 
felt  by  them  will  be  greatly  diminished.  _ 

I  turned  next  to  an  examination  of  the  quantity 
of  work  done  in  the  grammar  school  under  consid- 
eration—  and,  first,  of  the  amount  of  reading.  The 
amount  of  time  given  to  reading  and  the  study  of 
the  English  language  through  the  spelling-book 
and  the  little  grammar  which  are  used  in  that  school, 
and  through  a  variety  of  other  aids  to  the  learning 
of  English,  is  thirty-seven  per  cent,  of  all  school- 
time  during  six  years.  But  what  is  the  amount  of 
reading  in  this  time  ?  I  procured  two  careful  esti- 
mates of  the  time  it  would  take  a  graduate  of  a 
high  school  to  read  aloud  consecutively  all  the 
books  which  are  read  in  this  school  during  six 
years,  including  the  history,  the  reading  lessons  in 
geography,  and  the  book  on  manners.  The  esti- 
mates were  made  by  two  persons  reading  aloud 
at  a  moderate  rate,  and  reading  everything  that 
the  children  in  most  of  the  rooms  of  that  school 
have  been  supposed  to  read  during  their  entire 
course  of  six  years.  The  time  occupied  in  doing 
this  reading  was  forty- six  hours.  These  children 
had,  therefore,  been  more  than  two  solid  years  of 
school-time  in  going  through  what  an  ordinary 
high-school  graduate  can  read  aloud  in  forty-six 
hours.  I  will  mention  one  detail  of  this  examina- 
tion which  seemed  to  me  suggestive.  It  took  one 
and  a  half  hours  to  read  aloud  the  whole  of  one  of 
the  earlier  readers.  I  counted  the  words  in  that 
reader,  and  found  that  the  number  of  words  was 
about  equal  to  the  number  of  words  on  three  pages 

185 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

of  an  ordinary  Sunday  newspaper,  or  on  four  and 
a  half  pages  of  a  better-printed  paper.  The  actual 
"number  of  words  learned  during  six  years  is  small, 
and  the  amount  of  ground  covered  in  literature 
is  also  small.  How  small  an  acquaintance  adults 
would  make  with  English  literature  if  their  read- 
ing during  six  years  were  limited  in  amount  to  the 
quantity  they  could  read  aloud  in  forty-six  hours, 
or  one  minute  and  fifteen  seconds  a  day!  This 
test  of  the  quantity  of  work  performed  in  a  gram- 
mar school  is,  of  course,  a  very  rough  and  inade- 
quate one.  It  does  not  represent  at  all  the  labor 
of  the  childish  mind;  it  does  not  represent  the 
labor  of  the  teacher ;  but  it  gives  some  clue  to  the 
very  limited  acquaintance  with  literature  which 
the  children  get  in  the  entire  course  of  six  years. 

Arithmetic  is  the  subject  mainly  relied  on  in  the 
American  school  course  for  the  training  of  what 
is  called  the  reasoning  power ;  at  least,  one  finds 
little  else  in  the  whole  course  of  grammar-school 
study  which  has  any  specific  tendency  to  develop 
the  reasoning  power.  It  is,  however,  a  very  pecu- 
liar kind  of  reasoning  which  is  used  in  mathemat- 
ics, a  kind  we  seldom  use  in  the  actual  world,  and 
which  is  of  no  use  whatever  in  the  moral  sciences. 
The  mathematics  deal  with  certainties  and  demon- 
strations— things  with  which  common  life  has  very 
little  to  do.  The  time  devoted  to  arithmetic  in 
my  sample  grammar  school  is  nearly  twenty-one 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  school-time  during  six  years. 
I  leave  it  to  others  to  consider  whether  twenty-one 
per  cent,  be  too  much  or  too  little.   As  a  fact,  more 

1 86 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

than  one  fifth  of  the  whole  time  of  the  children  for 
six  years  is  given  to  arithmetic.  During  the  first 
two  years  of  the  course  the  children  went  through 
eighty-eight  pages  of  the  excellent  arithmetic 
which  was  in  use,  and  they  did  all  the  sums  on 
these  pages.  There  were  also  in  the  book  certain 
tables  for  the  purpose  of  drill,  and  collections  of 
examples  in  great  variety,  which  were  used  at 
pleasure  by  the  teacher ;  but  the  children  only  did 
a  few  of  these  additional  examples.  Those  I  omit- 
ted from  the  following  estimate.  It  took  a  high- 
school  graduate  fifteen  hours  to  do  all  the  sums  on 
those  eighty-eight  pages  which  the  children  did  in 
two  years,  giving  one  fifth  of  their  time  in  each 
year,  after  having  studied  arithmetic  in  the  pri- 
mary classes.  My  high-school  graduate  wrote 
everything  out  in  full,  did  all  the  work,  and  got 
the  answer  to  every  sum  in  fifteen  hours.  Again, 
this  is  by  no  means  a  test  of  the  amount  of  work 
that  the  children  did,  or  of  the  work  that  the 
teachers  did.  It  only  gives  us  a  ghmpse  of  the 
very  small  arithmetical  accomplishment  by  those 
children  who  had  been  three  years  in  a  primary 
school  and  two  years  in  a  grammar  school,  and 
who,  in  the  grammar  school,  had  given  one  fifth  of 
their  entire  time  to  that  subject. 

As  to  the  other  studies  of  the  school,  I  will  barely 
mention  that  ten  per  cent,  of  the  time  for  six 
years  was  given  to  geography;  that  another  ten 
per  cent,  was  given  to  drawing,  sewing,  and  music ; 
and  that  the  small  balance  remaining  was  divided 
among  writing,  history,  and  bookkeeping,  lessons 

187 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

on  patriotism,  morals,  manners,  physiology  and 
hygiene,  physical  exercises,  and  the  introductory 
morning  exercises. 

I  come  next  to  the  objects  sought  in  the  selection 
of  subjects  of  study.  With  the  exception  of  arith- 
metic, all  the  subjects  taught  in  my  sample  gram- 
mar school  cultivated  chiefly  the  memory.  More 
than  two  thirds  of  all  the  time  was  given  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  memory.  It  may  be  doubted 
what  power  the  study  of  mathematics  really  culti- 
vates. I  remember  to  have  done  a  great  deal  of 
mathematical  work  when  I  was  at  school  by  mem- 
ory solely,  without  any  real  understanding  of  the 
work.  For  example,  until  I  got  to  algebra  I  never 
had  the  faintest  idea  about  the  reason  underlying 
the  process  of  obtaining  the  greatest  common  divi- 
sor or  the  least  common  multiple ;  but  I  could  do 
all  the  sums  on  those  subjects,  because  I  followed 
accurately  a  rule  or  method  which  I  remembered 
correctly.  We  must  not  assume  that  the  study  of 
arithmetic  in  the  grammar  school  trains  much  be- 
sides the  memory.  The  training  of  the  observa- 
tional faculties  is  completely  disregarded.  A  child 
in  this  school  gets  no  training  at  all  in  correct  ob- 
servation. There  is  one  subject  taught  in  this 
school  which  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  training 
of  the  observational  faculties,  namely,  geography ; 
but  it  is  taught  solely  as  a  matter  of  memory. 
There  is  not  a  photograph  or  a  raised  map  in  the 
school.  There  is  nothing  whatever  with  which  to 
teach  geography  as  a  science  of  observation.  Prop- 
erly taught,  geography  is  one  of  the  most  profitable 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

subjects  for  school  use;  but  taught  as  a  memory 
study  it  is  one  of  the  most  unprofitable.  It  is  per- 
haps convenient  for  a  Massachusetts  child  to  know 
the  name  of  the  capital  of  the  commonwealth.  I 
think,  however,  that  most  children  discover  that 
fact  without  school  aid.  It  is  entirely  unimportant 
that  children  know  the  names  of  the  capitals  of  all 
the  States  of  this  Union,  for  most  of  those  capitals 
are  unimportant  places.  It  is  entirely  useless  to 
teach  children  elaborately  the  boundaries  of  the 
States  of  this  Union.  There  is  no  mental  training 
in  such  acquisitions,  and  no  profit  of  any  sort.  It 
is  doubtful  if  there  be  many  persons  in  this  hall, 
except  professional  teachers,  who  have  that  know- 
ledge to-day.  I  am  sure  I  have  not.  There  is  a 
dangerous  theory  in  education,  that  it  is  worth 
while  to  learn  many  things  in  youth  which  are  to 
be  forgotten  in  adult  age.  This  theory  is  dangerous 
because  there  is  an  element  of  truth  in  it.  The 
element  of  truth  is  that  it  is  worth  while  to  learn 
in  youth  things  through  which  we  acquire  a  power 
which  lasts,  though  the  things  themselves  be  for- 
gotten. On  the  other  hand,  to  teach  a  variety  of 
little  things  to  children,  which  they  are  sure  to  for- 
get before  they  have  grown  up,  and  which  afford 
no  substantial  mental  training,  is  a  waste  of  time. 
Besides  geography,  the  following  subjects — history, 
physiology  and  hygiene,  patriotism,  morals,  and 
manners — are  all  taught  as  memory  subjects  in  my 
sample  school. 

There  was  another  chance  for  a  bit  of  observational 
study  in  the  same  sample  grammar  school.    It  was 

189 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

in  connection  with  the  study  of  physiology,  anat- 
omy, and  hygiene.  I  imagined  that  there  might  be 
a  skeleton  in  that  school,  or  a  manikin,  or  a  model  of 
the  brain,  stomach,  lungs,  eye,  ear,  hand,  or  arm,  and 
that  the  children  might  be  shown  some  of  these 
beautiful  organs.  But  no;  there  was  nothing  of 
the  sort  in  the  school-house,  and  there  never  had 
been.  Everything  concerning  that  natural-histoiy 
subject  was  taught  out  of  a  little  book ;  the  children 
had  nothing  but  flat  figures  of  the  things  described, 
and  were  required  to  make  them  stand  for  the  vari- 
ous members  of  the  human  body.  Here  was  a  bit 
of  science  used  wrongly,  and  used  in  a  way  which 
all  scientific  men  would  deplore.  The  mere  mem- 
orizing of  scientific  facts  is  not  as  useful  to  chil- 
dren as  the  memorizing  of  grammar,  even  of 
English  grammar,  and  it  is  not  to  be  compared  for 
a  moment,  as  a  means  of  mental  training,  with 
memorizing  Latin  grammar.  Observational  teach- 
ing of  the  human  body  is,  of  course,  a  fascinating 
and  profitable  study  for  children,  just  as  observa- 
tional teaching  in  geography  makes  that  subject 
one  of  the  most  charming  in  the  world  whether  for 
children  or  adults.  Until  we  can  get  the  means  of 
teaching  scientific  subjects  properly,  let  us  not 
teach  them  at  all.  I  regretted  to  observe,  also,  in 
this  same  little  book,  examples  of  the  worst  pos- 
sible method  in  science  teaching.  At  the  end  of 
each  chapter  there  were  some  remarks  on  the  effect 
of  alcohol  on  the  stomach,  brain,  and  almost  every 
other  part  of  the  body.  These  remarks  were  obvi- 
ously intended  to  have  on  the  childish  mind  some 

190 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

warning  effect  against  the  use  of  alcohol.  Some 
of  them  were  clearly  false,  others  absurd;  most  of 
them  were  entirely  unproved  as  yet  by  science,  and 
many  of  them  will  probably  remain  unprovable  for 
centuries.  No  worse  example  of  the  perversion  of 
science  in  teaching  can  be  imagined  than  the  au- 
thoritative assertion  of  such  unproved,  and,  for  the 
most  part,  unprovable,  propositions.  Teachers  and 
pupils  alike  know  perfectly  well  that  the  book  is 
trying  to  impose  on  them.  The  method  is  thor- 
oughly immoral. 

I  found  my  sample  grammar  school  very  inter- 
esting from  another  point  of  view.  It  was  not  one 
of  those  unfortunate  schools  in  which  fifty-six  pupils 
are  assigned  to  one  teacher.  The  number  of  pupils 
to  a  teacher  was  less  than  fifty-six,  though  still  too 
large.  Since  there  were  pupils  in  that  school  of 
various  nationalities,  religions,  and  conditions  in 
life,  every  set  of  pupils  of  the  same  grade  assem- 
bled in  one  room  contained  a  large  variety  of  indi- 
viduals of  different  powers  and  capacities ;  yet  they 
all  had  to  be  treated  in  precisely  the  same  way, 
except  as  the  ingenuity  of  the  teacher  might  dis- 
cover means  of  escape  from  this  disastrous  uni- 
formity. There  were  children  who  could  do  the  set 
tasks  in  arithmetic  in  fifteen  minutes,  and  other 
children  who  could  not  do  them  in  fifty-five  min- 
utes; and  there  were  all  varieties  between  these 
limits.  I  suppose  the  worst  feature  of  the  Ameri- 
can school  is  this  grouping  together  of  children 
whose  capacities  are  widely  different.  I  am  told 
that  this  evil  is  not  so  generally  left  without  rem- 

191 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

edy  in  the  Western  schools  as  it  is  in  the  Eastern ; 
but  I  have  had  no  particular  observation  of  Western 
grammar  schools.  In  my  sample  grammar  school 
there  was  no  official,  public,  regulation  remedy  for 
this  most  serious  condition  of  things.  What  was 
the  unofficial  private  remedy  provided  by  the  inge- 
nious teacher?  Simply  that  when  a  bright  pupil 
could  get  through  in  fifteen  minutes  what  the  pro- 
gramme allotted  fifty  minutes  to,  the  teacher  endea- 
vored to  give  that  child  something  else  to  do — a  book 
to  read,  other  examples  to  solve,  or  pictures  to  look 
at ;  but  she  had  so  many  children  before  her  that 
she  could  not  possibly  deal  with  all  of  them  in  that 
way.  This  is  the  daily  commonplace  evil  which 
exists  in  every  grammar-school  room,  I  suppose, 
in  Massachusetts.  What  is  the  remedy  ?  No  rem- 
edy seems  to  be  possible  except  grading  by  pro- 
ficiency and  capacity.  I  know  that  this  is  a 
remedy  which  the  average  school  committee  dislikes. 
We  cling  very  hard  to  the  delusion  that,  after  all, 
men  and  women  may  be  pretty  nearly  equal.  We 
are  flying  in  the  face  of  nature  when  we  conduct 
our  schools  on  such  a  theory.  We  must  learn,  on 
the  contrary,  that  the  only  possible  equality  among 
men  is  equality  before  the  law.  If  we  are  to  have 
good  schools,  we  must  remember  that  children  are 
individually  very  diverse,  and  that  the  community 
suffers  much  loss  when  the  quick  children  are  made 
to  keep  pace  with  the  slow.  Not  only  the  children 
themselves  suffer  loss,  but  the  community  to  which 
they  belong  loses  heavily  and  incessantly.  We 
ought  to  seek  a  regulation  remedy  for  this  state  of 

192 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

things,  not  leaving  it  to  the  good  feeling  and  inge- 
nuity of  the  individual  teacher.  Through  this 
grading  by  proficiency  quite  as  much  good  would 
be  done  to  the  slower  pupils  as  to  the  quicker. 
There  is  nothing  more  depressing,  and,  on  the 
whole,  degrading,  than  a  hopeless  contest ;  than  the 
sense  of  remaining,  day  after  day  and  year  after 
year,  a  dunce,  without  expectation  of  promotion, 
and  without  gain  in  mental  power.  We  must  not 
imagine,  therefore,  that  in  attempting  to  further 
the  interests  of  the  superior  children  we  should  fail 
to  further  the  interests  of  the  inferior.  We  should 
do  both  these  good  things  simultaneously.  Here  is 
the  main  ground  for  the  hope  I  feel  for  the  future 
of  the  grammar  school.  I  believe  that  through  this 
method  of  grading  by  proficiency  and  capacity  it 
can  be  lifted,  its  work  greatly  improved,  and  the 
benefit  it  confers  upon  the  community  substantially 
increased.  The  method  would  not  be  a  new  thing. 
It  formerly  existed  in  our  public  schools  to  a  greater 
extent  than  it  does  now,  yet  the  need  of  it  now  is 
much  greater  than  it  was  earlier,  since  our  popula- 
tion has  become  very  much  more  heterogeneous 
than  it  was  forty  years  ago. 

I  have  already  said  enough,  I  think,  to  open  the 
subject  which  the  Association  assigned  to  me.  Let 
me  recapitulate  the  points  which  I  have  touched  — 
that  we  need  more  school-time  in  the  year ;  that  to 
get  this  safely  we  must  have  better  ventilation, 
more  gymnastics,  and  more  interesting  instruction ; 
that  the  actual  amount  of  work  accomplished  should 
be  carefully  considered  on  a  large  scale  —  not  in  a 


13 


193 


An  Average  Massachusetts  Grammar  School 

single  school,  as  I  have  done,  but  in  many  schools, 
by  many  teachers  and  many  superintendents,  to 
see  if  the  present  low  limits  of  actual  attainment 
cannot  be  enlarged ;  that  the  selection  of  subjects 
requires  reconsideration ;  and,  lastly,  that  the  grad- 
ing of  pupils  should  be  by  proficiency. 

K  we  could  bring  children  through  our  grammar- 
school  system  and  get  them  ready  for  the  high 
school  at  thirteen  or  fourteen  years  of  age,  the  diffi- 
culty which  originally  drew  my  attention  to  the 
school  programmes  —  namely,  that  the  graduates 
of  universities  enter  life  too  late — would  begin  to 
be  remedied,  and  thousands  of  children  who  never 
go  beyond  the  grammar  school  would  be  greatly 
benefited.  I  must  again  apologize  to  you  for  intrud- 
ing upon  a  field  where  you  have  much  fuller  op- 
portunities for  observation  and  greater  familiarity 
with  details  than  I  have.  I  know  that  in  the  con- 
duct of  college  and  university  affairs  the  observa- 
tions of  an  outsider  are  sometimes  useful.  He  may 
see  something  which  the  men  who  are  fully  absorbed 
in  college  or  university  work  have  not  seen.  I  have 
a  faint  hope  that  possibly  I  may  have  attracted  your 
attention  to  some  points  in  the  grammar-school 
system  at  which  improvement  is  possible.  I  know 
it  is  wholly  for  you  to  make  useful  application  of 
any  hints  I  may  have  been  fortunate  enough  to  give. 


194 


THE  GAP  BETWEEN 
COMMON  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 

The  "  Arena,"  June,  1890 


THE  GAP  BETWEEN 
COMMON  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 


IN  July  last,  Professor  Canfield  of  the  University 
of  Kansas  read  before  the  National  Council  of 
Education  a  well-considered  report  on  secondary 
education  in  the  United  States.  This  valuable 
paper  gives  a  clear  picture  of  the  undeveloped  con- 
dition of  secondary  education  throughout  the  coun- 
try, and  demonstrates  that  just  there  lies  the 
weakest  part  of  our  educational  system.  No  State 
in  the  American  Union  possesses  anything  which 
can  be  properly  called  a  system  of  secondary 
education.  The  elementary  or  common-school  sys- 
tem, in  both  city  and  country,  is  tolerably  organ- 
ized in  many  States ;  but  between  the  elementary 
schools  and  the  colleges  is  a  wide  gap  very  imper- 
fectly bridged  by  a  few  public  high  schools,  en- 
dowed academies,  college  preparatory  departments, 
and  private  schools,  which  conform  to  no  common 
standards  and  are  under  no  unifying  control.  The 
masses  of  the  rural  population  —  that  is  to  say, 
three  quarters  of  the  American  people  —  are  un- 
1^*  197 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

provided  with  secondary  schools.  The  town  and 
city  high  schools  are,  on  the  one  hand,  indepen- 
dent of  each  other  and  of  any  superior  educational 
authority;  and,  on  the  other,  are  entirely  in  the 
power  of  local  committees  or  boards  which  can 
but  rarely  look  beyond  the  immediate  interests  of 
the  particular  region  which  supports  each  school. 
Many  States  have  adopted  permissive  legislation 
with  regard  to  the  maintenance  of  high  schools; 
but  for  the  most  part  this  legislation  has  produced 
scanty  fruits.  Only  one  State  in  the  Union  —  Mas- 
sachusetts —  has  mandatory  legislation  on  this  sub- 
ject; bnt  in  that  State  a  large  proportion  of  the 
two  hundred  and  thirty  so-called  high  schools  are 
not  secondary  schools  in  any  proper  sense.  Be- 
cause of  the  lack  of  secondary  schools  com- 
petent to  prepare  their  pupils  for  college,  five 
sixths  of  the  colleges  and  universities  in  the  United 
States  maintain  preparatory  departments  against 
their  will,  and  in  disregard  of  the  interests  of  the 
higher  instruction. 

One  would  infer  from  Professor  Canfield's  report 
that  with  regard  to  secondary  education  the  con- 
dition of  things  in  Massachusetts  —  a  little  State  in 
which  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  population  may  fairly 
be  called  urban  —  is  better  than  anywhere  else  in 
the  United  States.  Perhaps  it  is;  but  how  wide 
the  gap  is  between  the  common  schools  in  Massa- 
chusetts and  her  colleges  may  be  inferred  from  a 
few  facts  about  the  supply  of  students  to  Harvard 
College.  Only  nine  Massachusetts  high  schools 
(out  of  two  hundred  and  thirty)  send  pupils  to 

198 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

Harvard  College  every  year.  In  1889,  out  of  three 
hundred  and  fifty-two  persons  who  were  admitted 
to  Harvard  College  as  candidates  for  the  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  ninety-seven  (or  twenty- 
seven  and  one  half  per  cent.)  were  prepared  at  free 
public  schools;  but  these  schools  numbered  only 
thirty,  and  all  New  England  furnished  but  twenty- 
three  of  them.  The  plain  fact  in  Massachusetts  is 
that  not  one  tenth  of  the  schools  called  high  ha- 
bitually maintain  a  course  of  study  which  enables 
the  pupil  to  prepare  himself  for  admission  to  Har- 
vard College,  or  to  any  other  college  in  the  State 
which  enforces  its  requirements  for  admission  as 
stated  in  its  catalogue. 

If  this  is  the  condition  of  things  in  what  may  be 
called  an  urban  State,  what  must  it  be  in  a  rural 
one?  Imagine  a  patriot  compelled  to  choose  ben 
tween  two  alternatives  —  one,  that  the  less  intel- 
ligent half  of  his  countrymen  should  be  completely 
illiterate ;  the  other,  that  half  of  the  children  capa- 
ble of  receiving  the  highest  instruction  should  be 
cut  off  from  that  instruction.  Which  would  he 
choose?  He  would  find  the  decision  a  difficult 
one;  for  either  alternative  would  inflict  an  incal- 
culable loss  upon  his  country.  Yet,  in  the  present 
condition  of  secondary  education,  one  half  of  the 
most  capable  children  in  the  United  States,  at  a 
moderate  estimate,  have  no  open  road  to  colleges 
and  universities. 

To  discover  and  to  apply  the  remedies  for  the 
present  defective,  disjointed,  and  heterogeneous 
condition  of  secondary  education  is  the  problem 

199 


Tbe  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

now  most  worthy  of  the  attention  of  American 
educationists;  but  while  seeking  remedies  they 
must  use  palliatives.  Recognizing  the  plain  fact 
of  to-day  —  that  secondary  schools  are  insufficient 
in  number  and  defective  in  quality  —  what  can 
colleges  do,  under  these  adverse  circumstances,  to 
make  themselves  as  useful  as  possible  to  the  popu- 
lation, while  awaiting  a  better  organization  of 
secondary  education  I  Is  it  not  their  plain  duty  to 
maintain  two  schedules  of  requirements,  one  for 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  the  other  for  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  or  Philosophy,  the 
latter  demanding  much  less  preparatory  study 
than  the  former!  American  colleges  have  been 
severely  criticized  for  receiving  students  whose 
preparation  was  confessedly  inferior  to  that  re- 
quired of  candidates  for  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Arts;  but  even  the  oldest  and  strongest  of  them 
have  done  this,  and  they  have  done  it  from  a  genu- 
ine desire  to  be  serviceable  to  as  large  a  proportion 
as  possible  of  American  youth.  One  lower  grade 
of  admission  examinations,  leading  to  a  distinct 
degree,  is  an  expedient  concession  to  the  feeble 
condition  of  secondary  education  throughout  the 
country.  That  grade  of  secondary  schools  which 
cannot  prepare  pupils  for  the  Bachelor  of  Arts 
course,  but  can  prepare  them  for  the  Bachelor  of 
Science  course,  is  thus  brought  into  serviceable 
connection  with  the  colleges. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  slight  and  elemen- 
tary examinations  on  which  many  universities 
admit  to  their  professional  schools.    It  is  much  to 

200 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

be  regretted  that,  concerning  the  great  majority  of 
lawyers  and  physicians,  the  community  has  no 
security  that  they  are  men  of  any  general  cultiva- 
tion or  liberal  training ;  but  the  fault  or  defect  is 
at  the  secondary-school  stage.  The  universities 
palliate  the  acknowledged  evil  by  admitting  to  a 
professional  training,  which  is  in  itself  a  strenuous 
education,  men  whose  defective  earlier  education 
can  never  —  except  in  rarest  instances  —  be  made 
good. 

Another  expedient  measure  for  keeping  colleges 
in  touch  with  that  large  proportion  of  the  Ameri- 
can population  which  has  no  access  to  systematic 
secondary  instruction  is  the  admission  to  college, 
without  any  comprehensive  examination,  of  per- 
sons who  prove  themselves  able  to  pursue  special 
subjects  which  are  taught  in  college  but  not  else- 
where, and  who  without  expectation  of  any  degree 
are  willing  to  submit  to  all  college  tests  of  their 
industry  and  capacity.  This  measure  was  adopted 
at  Harvard  College  so  long  ago  as  1826,  and  was  in 
force  till  1848,  when  it  was  temporarily  abandoned, 
to  be  taken  up  again  in  1873.  It  is  an  arrange- 
ment liable  to  abuse,  and  likely,  if  not  vigilantly 
watched,  to  impair  the  discipline  of  secondary 
schools ;  but  through  it  a  considerable  number  of 
worthy  and  able  young  men,  who  would  otherwise 
be  cut  oif,  get  access  to  the  institutions  of  higher 
education — to  their  great  advantage  and  the  benefit 
of  the  community. 

There  are  those  who  think  that  some  colleges 
have  gone  unnecessarily  far  in  offering  different 

201 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

courses  with  diminishing  requirements  for  admis- 
sion and  different  degrees.  Such  colleges  seem  to 
say:  If  a  candidate  cannot  get  into  our  classical 
course,  perhaps  he  can  enter  the  literary  course; 
if  not  the  literary,  then  the  scientific ;  if  not  the 
scientific,  at  any  rate  the  agricultural.  The  value 
of  all  degrees  seems  to  be  threatened  by  this  un- 
necessary multiplicity  of  titles  and  conditions;  and 
the  standards  of  good  secondary  schools  must 
needs  be  unfavorably  affected  by  a  long  sliding 
scale  of  requirements  for  admission  to  the  several 
courses  offered  by  a  single  institution. 

The  consideration  of  the  palliatives  which  col- 
leges may  resort  to  in  the  present  feeble  and 
distracted  condition  of  secondary  education  is, 
however,  much  less  attractive  than  the  study  of 
the  remedies  for  existing  evils  and  defects. 

To  improve  secondary  education  in  the  United 
States,  two  things  are  necessary :  (1)  more  schools 
are  needed;  (2)  the  existing  schools  need  to  be 
brought  to  common  and  higher  standards,  so  that 
the  colleges  may  find  in  the  school  courses  a  firm, 
broad,  and  reasonably  homogeneous  foundation  for 
their  higher  work. 

(1)  More  schools.  Secondary  schools  are  either 
day-schools  or  boarding-schools,  the  urban  school 
being  primarily  a  day-school,  and  the  rural  a  board- 
ing-school. The  public  secondary  school  is  now 
urban  almost  exclusively,  and  it  must  be  admitted 
that  it  is  likely  to  continue  so ;  for  no  promising 
suggestion  has  as  yet  been  made  for  a  rural  area 

202 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

of  support  for  a  highly  organized  secondary  school. 
It  is  admitted  that  neither  a  rural  township  nor  a 
union  of  contiguous  rural  districts  can  ordinarily 
support  such  a  school.  The  county  has  been  sug- 
gested as  a  possible  area  of  support ;  but  there  is 
no  sufficient  evidence  that  a  rural  county,  apart 
from  its  town  or  towns  of  dense  population,  can 
support  a  good  high  school.  To  increase  the 
present  number  of  secondary  schools  which  can 
really  fit  pupils  for  college,  what  are  the  most  hope- 
ful lines  of  action  ?  In  the  first  place,  every  effort 
should  be  made  by  school  authorities,  the  press, 
and  other  leaders  of  public  opinion,  to  promote  the 
establishment  of  secondary  urban  day-schools,  both 
public  and  private,  and  to  adapt  the  programmes  of 
existing  schools  to  the  admission  requirements  of 
some  college  course  which  leads  to  a  degree.  It 
is  noticeable  that,  in  the  older  cities,  and  to  some 
extent  in  the  younger  ones  also,  the  best  private 
schools  exist  right  beside  the  best  public  schools. 
The  causes  which  produce  one  class  of  schools  tend 
to  produce  the  other.  Secondly,  rural  communi- 
ties ought  to  be  authorized  by  suitable  legislation 
to  contribute  to  the  establishment  (including  the 
provision  of  buildings)  and  annual  support  of  urban 
secondary  schools  which  are  conveniently  situated 
for  their  use.  Thirdly,  there  should  be  authorized 
by  law  special  secondary-school  districts,  much 
larger  than  the  areas  which  support  primary  and 
grammar  schools,  and  constructed  with  reference 
to  railroad  communications.  It  may  be  much  easier 
for  a  boy  or  girl  to  go  to  school  fifteen  miles  by  rail 

203 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

than  to  walk  to  school  in  all  weathers  two  miles 
by  country  lanes.  The  rural  population  has  some- 
thing to  hope  from  legislative  recognition  of  rail- 
ways as  chief  features  in  secondary-school  districts. 
The  Massachusetts  normal  schools  illustrate  this 
principle ;  for  in  reality  they  are  slightly  modified 
high  schools,  partly  boarding-schools  and  partly 
local  and  railroad  day-schools.  Fourthly,  every 
effort  should  be  made  to  stimulate  private  benev- 
olence to  endow  rural  secondary  boarding-schools 
or  academies,  under  corporate  management.  A 
boarding-school  ought  always  to  be  in  the  country; 
and  a  rural  secondary  school  would  almost  neces- 
sarily be,  in  part  at  least,  a  boarding-school. 

(2)  Common  standards.  The  existing  means  of 
elevating  and  regulating  secondary-school  instruc- 
tion may  be  conveniently  considered  under  two 
heads  —  {a)  State  aid  and  supervision,  and  (6)  col- 
lege admission  requirements.  Both  agencies  are 
already  useful,  but  both  may  be  greatly  improved 
and  extended. 

(a)  State  aid  and  supervision.  It  seems  to  have 
been  the  object  of  high-school  legislation  in  some 
States,  as,  for  example,  in  Massachusetts  and  in 
Maine,  to  encourage  the  creation  of  a  large  number 
of  low-grade  high  schools  without  really  expecting 
them  to  effect  any  junction  with  colleges.  Such  at 
any  rate  has  been  the  effect  of  the  mandatory  legis- 
lation of  Massachusetts,  and  such  must  be  the 
general  result  of  the  aid  offered  to  free  high 
schools  by  Maine.  That  unprosperous  State  now 
offers  to  give  any  free  high  school  as  much  money 

204 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

per  year  as  its  supporting  area  annually  appropri- 
ates for  instruction  in  the  school,  provided  the 
State  grant  shall  not  exceed  $250  in  any  case.  No 
inspection  or  examination  of  aided  schools  is  pro- 
vided for.  Such  legislation  encourages  the  estab- 
lishment of  numerous  weak  schools,  without  helping 
appreciably  the  schools  already  strong. 

Much  wiser  is  the  legislation  of  Minnesota,  which 
established  twelve  years  ago  a  State  High-School 
Board,  and  offered  $400  a  year  to  any  high  school 
which  was  found  by  the  Board  after  competent  in- 
spection to  fulfil  the  following  conditions:  the 
aided  school  must  receive  both  sexes  free,  and 
non-resident  pupils  also  without  fees,  provided 
such  pupils  can  pass  examinations  in  all  common- 
school  subjects  below  algebra  and  geometry,  and 
must  maintain  "regular  and  orderly  courses  of 
study,  embracing  all  the  branches  prescribed  as 
prerequisite  for  admission  to  the  collegiate  depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  Minnesota  not  lower 
than  the  sub-Freshman  class."  The  Board  may 
appoint  any  competent  persons  to  visit  the  high 
schools  and  may  pay  them,  but  not  more  than 
three  dollars  a  day.  Not  more  than  five  schools 
can  be  aided  in  any  one  county,  and  any  school 
once  accepted  by  the  Board  and  continuing  to 
comply  with  all  the  regulations  must  be  aided  for 
not  less  than  three  years.  The  State  appropriated 
in  1878  only  $9000  for  the  use  of  the  Board ;  but 
this  amount  was  raised  the  next  year  to  $20,000, 
and  in  1883  to  $23,000.  The  Board  consists  of  the 
Governor,  the  State  Superintendent  of  public  in- 

205 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

struction,  and  the  President  of  the  University  of 
Minnesota.  By  careful  inspections  the  Board  has 
classified  the  high  schools  of  the  State,  the  nine 
high  schools  of  the  first  rank  preparing  pupils  for 
the  Freshman  class  of  the  University.  This  high- 
school  legislation  seems  the  wisest  which  has  been 
adopted  in  the  United  States.  It  encourages  no 
schools  but  those  which  are  already  fairly  well  or- 
ganized ;  insists  that  aided  schools  shall  connect 
directly  with  a  university;  avoids  expensive  ex- 
aminations ;  provides  a  reasonable  amount  of  in- 
spection ;  grades  schools  by  their  programmes  and 
general  eflBiciency,  not  by  individual  examination 
results ;  gives  no  pecuniary  advantage  to  a  large 
school  over  one  equally  well  conducted  but  smaller; 
requires  aided  schools  to  take  non-resident  pupils 
without  charge;  and  applies  almost  the  whole  of 
the  State's  grant  to  the  direct  development  of  in- 
struction —  always  the  most  productive  application 
of  money  intended  to  benefit  schools  or  colleges. 
Minnesota  is  a  new  and  sparsely  settled  State,  and 
its  High-School  Board  acts  as  yet  upon  a  modest 
scale ;  but  the  principles  of  its  high-school  legisla- 
tion may  be  advantageously  copied  in  any  State 
of  the  Union,  however  old,  or  rich,  or  densely 
populated. 

The  State  of  New  York  furnishes  the  country 
with  an  excellent  opportunity  of  studying  another 
method  of  improving  secondary  education  through 
State  aid  and  supervision.  This  State,  in  1784, 
created  on  paper  an  ample  framework  called  the 
University  of  the  State  of  New  York,  which  was 

206 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

to  include  all  the  academic  and  collegiate  institu- 
tions of  the  State.  It  must  be  confessed  that  nei- 
ther the  State  of  New  York  nor  the  country  at 
large  has,  until  recently,  taken  this  institution  se- 
riously ;  partly  because  it  has  not  been  a  teaching 
body,  and  partly,  perhaps,  because  a  position  on 
the  Board  of  Regents  has  seemed  to  be  regarded  as 
an  honorary  distinction  suitable  for  State  ofl&cials, 
politicians  more  or  less  retired,  orators,  editors, 
lawyers,  and  men  of  wealth  and  leisure,  rather 
than  as  an  appointment  appropriate  for  profes- 
sional educationists.  Indeed,  the  fundamental  law 
concerning  the  University  expressly  provides  that 
no  officer  of  any  institution  belonging  to  the  Uni- 
versity shall  be  at  the  same  time  a  Regent ;  so  that 
almost  all  persons  professionally  concerned  with 
education  in  the  State  are  excluded  from  the 
Board.  Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  such  mild  criti- 
cism of  the  University  as  the  words  "legal  fiction'^ 
and  "  myth "  convey,  the  Board  of  Regents  has 
really  exercised  for  many  years  considerable  pow- 
ers, and  has  set  agencies  at  work  which  now  have 
a  strong  effect  upon  secondary  education  through- 
out the  State.  The  institution,  in  1863,  of  the  an- 
nual University  Convocation  has  added  greatly  to 
the  influence  and  usefulness  of  the  Board,  and  fur- 
nishes a  striking  illustration  of  the  great  good 
which  can  be  done  by  bringing  school  and  college 
men  together  under  favorable  conditions  for  dis- 
cussion and  consultation.  The  largest  and  most 
important  function  of  the  Board  is  that  of  con- 
ducting examinations  at  the  academies  and  high 

207 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

schools  of  the  State  in  all  the  subjects  taught  in 
those  schools,  and  of  issuing  to  the  persons  who 
pass  the  examinations  certificates  and  diplomas 
which  are  good  for  their  face  at  the  New  York  col- 
leges. The  examination  results  also  serve  as  the 
basis  for  the  annual  distribution  of  $100,000  of 
public  money  among  the  academies  and  high 
schools  of  the  State.  The  methods,  therefore, 
combine  State  aid  with  State  supervision ;  but  this 
supervision  is  chiefly  exercised,  not  by  visits  of 
inspection  to  the  schools,  but  by  uniform  and  si- 
multaneous written  examinations  in  subjects 
taught  in  the  schools. 

It  is  unquestionable  that  the  Regents'  examina- 
tions have  tended  to  raise  the  average  standard  of 
instruction  in  the  academies  and  high  schools,  to 
extend  and  improve  school  programmes,  to  bring 
schools  and  colleges  together  by  doing  away  with  use- 
less diversities  of  programme  in  secondary  schools 
and  useless  diversities  of  admission  requirements 
in  colleges,  and  to  stimulate  some  of  the  commu- 
nities which  maintain  these  schools  to  give  them 
better  support  and  to  take  a  pride  in  improving 
them.  These  are  great  services  which  deserve  the 
respectful  attention  of  the  other  States  of  the 
Union,  and  of  all  persons  interested  in  the  creation 
of  an  American  system  of  secondary  education. 
The  Regents  have  proved  that  a  State  examining 
board  can  exercise  a  stimulating,  elevating,  and 
unifying  influence  upon  hundreds  of  institutions 
of  secondary  education  scattered  over  a  large 
State,   and  can  wield  that   power  through    ma- 

208 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

chinery  which,  considering  the  scale  of  operations, 
may  fairly  be  called  simple  and  inexpensive.  The 
system  is  so  interesting  and  suggestive  that  even 
its  defects  should  be  carefully  studied. 

The  most  obvious  criticism  of  the  Regents' 
methods  touches  the  preparation  of  the  question 
papers  in  the  forty  subjects  of  examination.  The 
examination  papers  of  the  Board  do  not  proceed 
from  a  body  of  men  of  recognized  authority  in 
teaching,  and  they  are  not  prepared  by  specialists 
in  each  subject.  It  is  understood  that  one  or  two 
persons  write  all  the  papers.  The  Regents'  mode 
of  providing  examination  papers  differs  widely 
from  the  method  employed  at  Harvard  College  in 
preparing  papers  for  the  admission  examinations. 
At  Harvard,  each  paper  is  first  written  by  an  ex- 
pert in  its  subject ;  next,  it  is  criticized  by  all  the 
teachers  of  the  department  to  which  the  subject 
belongs,  as,  for  example,  by  all  the  teachers  in 
Latin,  or  Greek,  or  mathematics ;  and,  lastly,  it 
must  be  approved  by  a  committee  in  which  all  the 
departments  concerned  with  the  admission  exam- 
inations are  represented.  With  all  this  care  se- 
rious mistakes  of  judgment  are  from  time  to  time 
committed.  The  Regents'  method  seems  too  uni- 
form and  unguarded,  and  it  can  hardly  carry  the 
desirable  weight  of  authority. 

The  next  criticism  might  well  be  directed  to  the 
mode  of  conducting  the  examinations.  So  long  as 
they  are  conducted  at  the  academies  and  by  the 
principals  or  their  deputies  without  supervision  by 
any  agent  of  the  Regents,  they  cannot  command 
1*  209 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

that  confidence  which  independent  examinations 
conducted  by  agents  of  the  Regents  would  com- 
mand. If  the  cost  of  conducting  independent  ex- 
aminations be  a  serious  difficulty, —  which  one  can 
hardly  suppose, —  it  may  be  suggested  that  one  ex- 
amination a  year  perfectly  conducted  would  serve 
the  interests  of  the  schools  and  colleges  better  than 
the  existing  three  conducted  in  the  present  man- 
ner. Indeed,  a  reduction  in  the  number  of  exam- 
ination periods  seems  desirable  for  many  cogent 
reasons.  The  integrity  of  the  examinations  is  of 
paramount  importance;  no  other  consideration, 
like  those  of  economy,  rapidity,  or  convenience,  is 
of  the  same  order.  The  Eegents'  annual  reports 
indicate  unmistakably  that  the  marking  of  the 
answer  papers  should  be  done  exclusively  by  the 
Regents'  examiners.  The  average  percentage  of 
disallowed  claims  for  preliminary  certificates  in 
the  nineteen  years  from  1869  to  1888  was  fifteen 
and  one-half  per  cent.,  showing  that  the  principals 
and  the  examiners  differed  in  more  than  one  case 
out  of  seven  in  these  elementary  subjects.  For 
intermediate  and  language  subjects,  and  for  the 
optional  groups,  similar  divergencies  appear  be- 
tween the  verdicts  of  principals  and  those  of  exam- 
iners; but  the  difference  between  different  insti- 
tutions is  so  great  in  this  respect,  and  the  total 
numbers  are  so  moderate,  that  averages  are  not 
very  instructive.  For  the  honesty  of  the  examina- 
tions the  Regents  depend  on  a  solemn  assevera- 
tion made  at  the  end  of  every  answer  paper  by 
every  person  under  examination,  and  on  a  very 

210 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

comprehensive  affidavit  made  by  the  principal. 
These  means  seem  insufficient  and,  on  the  whole, 
unjustifiable.  They  are  distasteful  and  unneces- 
sary for  honorable  persons,  ineffective  for  the  dis- 
honorable, and  entrapping  for  the  thoughtless. 

Another  criticism  might  be  directed  against  the 
quahty  of  the  Regents'  examiners.  Ten  persons, 
four  men  and  six  women,  are  employed  chiefly  upon 
the  academic  examinations,  and  their  average  sal- 
ary is  $1000,  only  two  receiving  more  than  $900. 
All  these  are  doubtless  excellent  servants  of  the 
Board ;  but  in  addition  to  this  anonymous  force,  a 
scholar  and  teacher  of  recognized  position,  a  col- 
lege professor  if  possible,  should  be  employed  to 
supervise  the  judging  of  answer  papers  in  each  of 
the  principal  subjects — mathematics,  classics,  mod- 
ern languages,  English,  natural  sciences,  and  so 
forth — and  be  responsible  toward  the  public  for  the 
accuracy  and  fairness  of  the  work.  These  places 
should  not  be  sinecures,  but  well-paid  and  labori- 
ous posts.  The  incumbents  would  not  only  give 
dignity  and  authority  to  the  examinations,  but  they 
would  guard  the  system  against  the  chief  danger 
which  besets  examinations  conducted  by  persons 
who  are  not  teachers,  namely,  that  the  examina- 
tions will  not  keep  pace  with  the  incessant  improve- 
ments in  teaching.  Signs  are  not  wanting  that  the 
Regents'  system  needs  defense  against  this  danger. 
For  example,  the  last  syllabus  still  prescribes  for 
the  examinations  in  Latin  and  Greek  certain  speci- 
fied amounts  of  Caesar,  Virgil,  Sallust,  Cicero,  Xen- 
ophon,  and  Homer,  and  the  latest  examination. 

211 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

papers  present  passages  selected  exclusively  from 
these  prescribed  quantities ;  whereas  the  best  opin- 
ion among  accomplished  classical  teachers  has  for 
some  years  been  that  reading  at  sight  is  the  most 
satisfactory  test  of  a  pupil's  acquired  power  over 
Latin  and  Greek,  and  that  classical  teachers  in  sec- 
ondary schools  can  be  kept  fresh  and  vigorous  only 
by  giving  them  that  variety  and  liberty  in  their 
teaching  which  the  at-sight  test  permits.  How  can 
a  teacher  retain  any  clear  reasoning  powers,  if  he 
is  compelled  to  read  every  year  with  his  class  the 
Catiline  orations,  those  models  of  specious  and 
inflated  rhetoric  ? 

If  it  is  easy  to  point  out  some  defects  in  the  aca- 
demic examinations  of  the  University  of  the  State 
of  New  York,  it  is  much  more  important  to  call 
attention  to  the  services  which  the  Eegents  have 
rendered,  and  can  hereafter  render,  to  the  cause  of 
education.  K  they  develop  a  wise  system  of  con- 
trol over  secondary  schools,  by  examinations  alone, 
or,  better,  by  a  combination  of  examinations  with 
inspection, —  a  method  which  they  are  quite  at  lib- 
erty to  adopt,  and  indeed  have  already  adopted  in 
a  limited  way, — their  example  vrill  be  efficacious 
with  other  States.  If  they  succeed  in  effecting  a 
close  contact  between  secondary  schools  and  col- 
leges, their  success  will  be  a  beacon-light  for  the 
whole  country. 

{b)  College  admission  requirements.  College  re- 
quirements for  admission  act  effectively  on  those 
secondary  schools  only  which  prepare  some  of  their 
pupils  for  college;  upon  that  large  proportion  of 

212 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

high  schools  and  academies  which  do  not,  they  have 
only  an  indirect,  although  a  sensible,  effect.  For 
the  broad  purposes  of  the  State,  the  influence  of 
colleges,  even  if  they  were  associated  together,  could 
not  be  so  immediate  and  potent  as  the  influence  of 
the  State,  whether  the  latter  were  exerted  by  inspec- 
tion or  by  examination.  It  is  in  a  narrower  field, 
therefore,  that  the  higher  institutions  of  education 
can  act  on  the  lower.  At  present  they  act  in  three 
ways. 

The  feeblest  way  is  by  prescribing  for  admission 
a  knowledge  of  certain  books,  or  of  certain  well- 
defined  subjects,  and  then  admitting  candidates  on 
the  certificate  of  any  schoolmaster  that  they  have 
gone  over  all  the  prescribed  books  or  subjects.  If 
the  prescriptions  of  the  college  are  judicious,  they 
are  not  without  some  favorable  effect  on  the  cur- 
ricula of  the  certifying  schools ;  but  it  may  be  rea- 
sonably objected  to  this  method  that  it  gives  the 
college  inadequate  protection  against  incompetent 
students,  and  the  public  no  means  of  forming  a  just 
estimate  of  different  schools.  Certificates  are  apt 
to  be  accepted  from  good  and  bad  schools  alike,  the 
anxiety  to  secure  students  in  a  struggling  college 
overriding  every  other  consideration.  Particularly 
is  this  apt  to  be  the  case  in  a  small  college  in  which 
the  president  has  succeeded  in  getting  the  subject 
of  admissions  out  of  the  hands  of  the  faculty  and 
into  his  own.  Under  this  system  a  really  good 
school  has  no  means  of  proving  itself  good,  and  a 
bad  school  is  not  promptly  exposed.  Within  a  few 
years  this  feeblest  of  all  methods  has  come  into  use, 
1**  213 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

without  any  safeguards  whatever,  in  the  large  ma- 
jority of  New  England  colleges,  no  system  of  State 
inspection  or  examination  existing  there,  no  pre- 
tense being  made  that  the  certifying  schools  are 
examined,  or  even  occasionally  visited,  by  the  col- 
leges. A  more  demoralizing  method  of  establishing 
a  close  connection  between  secondary  schools  and 
colleges  it  would  be  hard  to  imagine.  Neverthe- 
less, even  under  this  loose  and  unguarded  method, 
which  only  the  two  largest  New  England  colleges 
and  sturdy  little  Bowdoin  have  completely  resisted, 
some  good  has  resulted  from  cooperative  action 
between  preparatory  schools  and  colleges  to  make 
admission  requirements,  on  paper  at  least,  uniform 
for  the  same  subjects.  The  uniform  requirements 
in  English,  which  prevail  all  over  New  England 
except  at  Yale  University,  and  have  lately  been 
adopted  by  some  institutions  in  the  Middle  States, 
supply  a  noteworthy  case  in  point. 

The  method  just  described  is  a  corruption  or 
degradation  of  a  somewhat  safer  method  of  secur- 
ing close  connection  between  secondary  schools 
and  colleges  which  was  first  adopted  twenty  years 
ago  by  the  University  of  Michigan.  This  safer 
method,  as  developed  by  that  University,  amounts 
to  this :  The  University  admits  candidates  on  the 
diplomas  of  any  schools,  near  or  remote,  within  the 
State  or  without,  which  are  visited  and  accepted 
once  in  three  years  by  a  committee  of  the  Faculty, 
or  by  other  persons  designated  by  the  University. 
The  visit  may  be  repeated  if  any  important 
changes  take  place  in  a  school  within  the  three 

214 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

years.  The  diplomas  must  specify  that  the  candi- 
dates have  sustained  examinations  at  school  in  all 
the  studies  prescribed  for  admission  to  one  or  other 
of  the  University  courses  leading  to  a  degree. 
There  were  in  1889  seventy  schools  holding  this 
"  diploma  relation  "  to  the  University  of  Michigan. 
It  cannot  be  doubted  that  this  method  is  well 
adapted  for  recruiting  rapidly  a  single  dominant 
State  university;  but  its  value  as  a  method  for 
general  adoption  obviously  depends  on  the  thor- 
oughness, impartiality,  and  publicity  of  the  inspec- 
tion which  it  provides.  The  inspection  provided 
by  the  University  of  Michigan  seems  to  fail  on 
all  three  points.  Considering  the  rapidity  with 
which  teachers  are  changed  in  American  schools, 
an  inspection  once  in  three  years  seems  too  infre- 
quent. It  is  simply  incredible  that  a  busy  college 
faculty  should  have  time  to  inspect  properly  any 
considerable  number  of  secondary  schools,  or  that 
it  could  furnish  a  sufficient  number  of  inspectors 
competent  in  all  secondary-school  subjects.  The 
Harvard  faculty  of  arts  and  sciences  is  larger  than 
the  corresponding  Michigan  faculty ;  yet  the  Har- 
vard faculty  would  probably  declare  that  they 
could  not  inspect  twenty  secondary  schools  a  year 
with  sufficient  thoroughness  to  warrant  them  in 
expressing  a  public  judgment  on  the  merits  of  the 
several  schools,  unless,  indeed,  they  performed  this 
function  at  the  expense  of  their  own  proper  work 
of  collegiate  instruction.  Moreover,  there  is  not  a 
single  member  of  the  Harvard  faculty  who  would, 
without  a  good  deal  of  special  preparation,  feel 

215 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

himself  competent  to  examine  a  well-organized 
secondary  school  in  all  its  departments.  To  exam- 
ine thoroughly  such  a  school,  a  committee  of  at 
least  three  members  of  the  Harvard  faculty  would 
be  required,  and  these  teachers  would  have  to  be 
withdrawn  from  their  college  work  for  three  or  four 
days  in  the  case  of  a  neighboring  school,  and  for  a 
longer  time  in  the  case  of  a  distant  school.  As  to 
procuring  competent  inspectors  —  not  of  the  fac- 
ulty— in  numerous  remote  localities,  it  seems  quite 
impossible,  when  we  consider  how  much  know- 
ledge, experience,  and  good  judgment  are  required 
for  examining  all  the  work  of  any  school.  The 
moment  we  come  down  to  such  details  as  these,  we 
inevitably  conclude  that  the  inspection  of  secon- 
dary schools  provided  by  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan, single-handed,  must  be  rather  cursory.  It  is 
also  obvious  that  the  method  is  not  public  enough 
in  its  processes  to  demonstrate  its  fairness  and 
efficiency,  and  therefore  to  command  general  con- 
fidence. The  single-acting  authority  obviously  has 
interests  of  its  own  to  serve.  For  the  purposes  of 
this  discussion,  it  is  not  necessary  to  maintain  that 
the  diploma  method,  as  conducted  in  Michigan,  has 
not  worked  well,  or  even  that  it  has  not  worked  so 
well  as  the  method  of  admission  by  examination, 
as  conducted  in  Michigan.  There  is  some  gain  in 
establishing  friendly  relations  between  seventy 
secondary  schools  and  any  university.  But  it  is 
necessary  to  urge  that  it  lacks  adequate  securities, 
and  is  therefore  not  fit  for  general  adoption.  The 
Minnesota  method,  which  provides  in  the  State 

216 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

High-School  Board  an  independent  inspecting  au- 
thority, is  greatly  to  be  preferred. 

There  remains  the  most  effective  mode  in  which 
colleges  act  on  the  superior  sort  of  secondary 
schools,  namely,  the  method  of  conducting  careful 
examinations  in  all  the  subjects  acceptable  for  ad- 
mission. These  examinations  have  a  fair  degree  of 
publicity;  for  most  colleges  circulate  freely  their 
question  papers.  Harvard  College  also  publishes  in 
detail  the  results  of  its  examinations  for  admission. 
Such  examinations  are  no  longer,  as  formerly,  held 
only  at  the  seat  of  the  college  conducting  them, 
but  may  be  held  simultaneously  at  as  many  places 
as  the  convenience  of  candidates  may  require. 
Several  Eastern  colleges  now  conduct  examinations 
at  numerous  places  widely  distributed  over  the 
country.  Yale  University  distinctly  announces 
that  it  will  hold  an  admission  examination  "in  any 
city  or  at  any  school  where  the  number  of  candi- 
dates and  the  distance  from  other  places  of  exam- 
ination may  warrant  it."  The  method  can  easily 
be  given  a  national  application  by  any  institution 
which  has  prestige  and  a  numerous  staff.  In  the 
long  run,  it  grades  schools  fairly,  and  it  is  very 
stimulating  to  the  older  classes  in  secondary 
schools.  Like  all  examinations  conducted  by  an 
authority  independent  of  the  schools,  it  also  pro- 
tects the  masters  of  schools,  both  public  and  pri- 
vate, against  the  unwarrantable  importunities  of 
parents,  trustees,  and  committeemen.  Neverthe- 
less, it  is  open  to  some  serious  objections.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  not  sufficiently  public.    The  ques- 

217 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

tion  papers  may  look  well ;  but  the  standard  for 
passing  may  be  unreasonably  low,  the  public  hav- 
ing no  means  of  estimating  the  degree  of  strictness 
with  which  the  answer  papers  are  marked.  Sec- 
ondly, the  colleges  have,  until  lately,  acted  singly, 
each  for  itself,  without  consultation  or  concert. 
Each  college  or  university  is,  therefore,  naturally 
supposed  to  be  seeking  its  own  interest  rather  than 
the  common  welfare.  Thirdly,  in  a  small  college 
a  few  men,  who  perhaps  have  peculiarities  or 
■whims,  may  control  all  the  admission  examinations 
for  many  years,  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  college 
and  the  annoyance  of  schools.  All  these  evils 
would  be  removed  or  reduced  by  a  system  of  co- 
operation among  several  colleges. 

At  the  conclusion  of  this  rapid  survey,  the  ques- 
tion naturally  suggests  itself,  in  what  directions 
patriots  who  desire  to  see  American  secondary 
schools  improved  and  connected  more  closely  with 
colleges  may  look  for  progress.  There  are  certainly 
three  such  directions. 

1.  We  may  expect  State  examining  and  inspect- 
ing systems  to  improve  and  extend,  for  they  have 
demonstrated  their  utility ;  and,  remembering  the 
extremes  to  which  examination  methods  have  been 
carried  in  England,  we  may  reasonably  hope  that 
State  boards  will  more  and  more  inspect  institu- 
tions as  well  as  examine  individuals.  The  profes- 
sion of  school-inspector  will  therefore  become 
recognized  as  a  separate  and  honorable  calling. 

2.  We  may  hope  to  see  formed  a  combination 
of  four  or  five  of  the  universities  which  maintain 

218 


The  Gap  between  Common  Schools  and  Colleges 

large  departments  of  arts  and  sciences  to  conduct 
simultaneously,  at  well-selected  points  all  over  the 
country,  examinations  in  all  the  subjects  anywhere 
acceptable  for  admission  to  colleges  or  professional 
schools,  the  answer  papers  to  be  marked  by  persons 
annually  selected  by  the  combined  universities  and 
announced  to  the  public,  all  results  to  be  published, 
but  without  the  names  of  candidates,  and  certifi- 
cates to  be  good  anywhere  for  the  subjects  men- 
tioned in  them.  We  see  reason  to  believe  that  such 
a  cooperative  system  would  be  simple  though 
extensive;  that  it  would  present  no  serious  diffi- 
culties, mechanical  or  other ;  that  it  would  be  con- 
venient and  economical  for  candidates,  and  seK- 
supporting  on  moderate  fees ;  and,  finally,  that  it 
would  be  authoritative,  flexible,  stimulating,  uni- 
fying, and  just. 

3.  We  may  expect  to  see  a  great  extension  of 
the  scholarship  system,  whereby  promising  youths 
are  helped  through  secondary  schools  and  colleges. 
States,  cities,  towns,  and  endowments  provided  by 
private  benevolence,  will  all  contribute  to  the  devel- 
opment of  this  well-proved  system. 


2IQ 


THE  AIMS  OF 
THE  HIGHER  EDUCATION 

At  Chicago,  1891 


THE  AIMS  OF 
THE  HIGHER  EDUCATION 


THE  subject  which  I  have  the  honor  of  present- 
ing to  you  this  evening  is  a  noble  one :  the 
aims  of  the  higher  education  —  not  its  actual  attain- 
ments, and  not  even  its  hopes  of  attainment  in  the 
near  future,  but  its  aims,  the  distant  objects  which 
it  keeps  in  view,  the  ideals  toward  which  it  aspires. 
Let  us  first  briefly  consider  what  is  meant  by  the 
higher  education.  In  the  division  of  that  long 
course  of  education  which  the  most  thoroughly 
trained  young  American  can  get  —  a  course  which 
covers  about  twenty  years  between  the  sixth  and 
the  twenty-sixth  or  twenty-seventh  year  —  the 
higher  education  is  that  which  he  receives  after  he 
is  eighteen  or  nineteen  years  of  age.  It  is  that 
which  he  receives  in  the  comparative  freedom  of 
college  or  university  after  school  life  is  ended,  and 
usually  after  his  home  life  with  his  parents  is  over. 
It  ordinarily  covers  three  or  four  years  of  instruc- 
tion in  what  are  called  the  liberal  arts  or  sciences, 
and  after  that  period  a  professional  training  — 

22^ 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

a  broad  term,  which  includes  the  special  training 
for  the  professions  of  divinity,  law,  medicine,  engi- 
neering, applied  chemistry,  architecture,  teaching, 
and  various  other  callings  which  require  both  spe- 
cial learning  and  special  skill.  The  higher  educa- 
tion thus  covers  a  period  of  six  or  seven  years.  It 
is  given  in  universities  —  institutions  in  which  a 
young  man  is  more  or  less  separated  from  the  work- 
ing world,  and  enabled  to  devote  himself  to  sys- 
tematic study  and  practice.  Many  people  draw  a 
distinction  between  an  educated  and  a  practical 
man ;  but  true  education  is,  after  all,  nothing  but 
systematic  study  and  practice  under  guidance.  In 
this  comparative  seclusion  the  young  man  learns 
something  of  what  has  been  done  and  thought  in 
the  world,  before  he  takes  active  part  in  its  work. 
He  puts  himself  in  some  one  subject  abreast  of  the 
accumulated  wisdom  of  the  past ;  he  develops  and 
increases  his  own  powers,  and  gains  command  of 
those  powers.  He  gets  knowledge,  to  be  sure,  but, 
better  than  that,  he  gets  power.  Some  college-bred 
men  develop  only  their  powers  of  acquisition. 
They  absorb  knowledge,  but  cannot  give  it  out  or 
apply  it.  The  powers  of  exposition  and  applica- 
tion are  more  important  than  the  power  of  acqui- 
sition, and  should  be  trained  as  carefully.  The 
student  who  cannot  apply  the  principles  of  geom- 
etry to  new  problems  may  have  gained  knowledge 
through  his  study  of  that  subject,  but  he  has  not 
gained  available  power.  Universities  too  often 
forget  this.  They  are  even  now  modifying  many 
of  their  methods  the  better  to  cultivate  effective 

224 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

power  in  their  students.  The  main  gain  from  elab- 
orate education  is  added  power. 

Universities  have  three  principal,  direct  func- 
tions. In  the  first  place,  they  teach ;  secondly,  they 
accumulate  great  stores  of  acquired  and  system- 
atized knowledge  in  the  form  of  books  and  collec- 
tions ;  thirdly,  they  investigate,  or,  in  other  words, 
they  seek  to  push  out  a  little  beyond  the  present 
limits  of  knowledge,  and  learn,  year  after  year,  day 
after  day,  some  new  truth.  They  are  teachers, 
storehouses,  and  searchers  for  truth.  Let  us  con- 
sider for  a  few  moments  the  university  in  each  of 
these  fundamental  functions. 

1.  A  university  teaches.  What  does  it  teach  ?  It 
must  obviously  teach  all  the  languages  in  which  the 
great  literatures  which  have  been  preserved  were 
written  —  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin, 
French,  Italian,  German,  Scandinavian,  and  Eng- 
lish ;  it  must  teach  all  history — Babylonian,  Egyp- 
tian, Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Roman,  and  all  modern 
history;  it  must  teach  how  the  most  precious 
human  institutions  have  grown  up  and  come  to 
their  present  state  —  the  institutions  of  civil  gov- 
ernment, of  the  family,  of  the  church,  and  of  the 
school;  it  must  teach  everything  that  human  in- 
sight has  discovered  about  the  structure  and  work- 
ing of  the  human  body  and  the  human  mind;  it 
must  teach  everything  mankind  has  learned  about 
the  broad  realm  of  nature  —  the  heavens  and  the 
earth,  the  plants  and  the  animals,  aerial,  aquatic, 
and  terrestrial;  it  must  set  forth  the  laws  of  all 
the  great  chemical,  physical,  and  biological  forces 
"  225 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Educatian 

mankind  has  discerned,  and  in  subordination  to 
which  the  race  lives ;  and,  finally,  it  must  set  before 
its  pupils  the  literatures  of  the  world, —  the  precious 
fruit  of  the  human  imagination  in  its  farthest  reaches, 
—  and  it  must  interpret  those  great  ideals  of  our 
race,  virtue,  duty,  piety,  and  righteousness.  All  these 
are  included  in  what  are  termed  the  liberal  arts 
and  sciences.  Beyond  this  immense  body  of  instruc- 
tion lie  the  professional  subjects.  The  expansion  of 
professional  education  is  one  of  the  main  charac- 
teristics of  educational  progress  during  the  past 
twenty-five  years  in  all  civilized  countries.  In 
every  profession  the  number  of  new  subjects  which 
a  master  in  the  profession  must  understand  is 
formidable,  and  in  consequence  the  time  demanded 
for  preparing  a  young  man  for  any  one  of  the  pro- 
fessions is  constantly  increasing.  Four  years  is 
now  a  moderate  period  for  preparation  for  any  one 
of  the  learned  or  scientific  professions.  In  a  uni- 
versity all  the  learned  or  scientific  professions  may 
be  prepared  for. 

The  division  of  subject  between  the  profes- 
sional schools  of  a  university  is  deep  and  wide. 
The  student  of  medicine  hardly  touches  one  of  the 
subjects  to  which  the  student  of  divinity  or  of 
law  must  almost  exclusively  devote  himself;  the 
student  of  theology  pays  no  attention  to  a  great 
group  of  subjects  which  occupies  completely  the 
time  of  the  student  of  electrical  engineering  for 
four  years ;  yet  in  a  true  university  the  spirit  of 
the  teaching  and  of  the  study  in  preparation  for 
all  these  varied  professions  is  one  and  the  same, 

226 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

viz.,  the  spirit  of  modern  science — candid,  fearless, 
truth-seeking,  searching  for  the  fact  regardless  of 
the  consequences. 

The  president  of  a  university  is  a  member  of  all 
its  faculties.  He  listens  to  the  discussions  in  all 
the  faculties  on  subjects  and  methods  of  instruc- 
tion, and  learns  to  recognize  the  modes  of  thought 
of  the  teachers  in  the  various  fields.  In  the  true 
university  he  will  always  see  that  the  spirit  is  one, 
while  the  subjects  are  diverse.  There  is  to-day  no 
difference  between  the  philologist's  method  of 
study  and  the  naturalist's,  or  between  a  psycholo- 
gist's method  and  a  physiologist's.  Students  of 
history  and  natural  history,  of  physics  and  meta- 
physics, of  literature  and  the  fine  arts,  find  that, 
though  their  fields  of  study  are  different,  their 
method  and  spirit  are  the  same.  This  oneness  of 
method  characterizes  the  true  university,  and 
partly  justifies  the  name.  This  observation  can 
best  be  made,  and  this  fundamental  lesson  learned, 
in  a  large  institution  which  comprehends  all  the 
knowledges,  and  contains  students  pursuing  a 
great  variety  of  researches. 

By  the  side  of  the  schools  ordinarily  called  pro- 
fessional there  stands  in  the  true  university  an 
advanced  school  of  liberal  arts  and  sciences,  ordi- 
narily called,  in  the  United  States,  the  graduate 
school,  department,  or  course.  This  is  the  profes- 
sional school  for  teachers,  men  of  letters,  journal- 
ists, naturalists,  physicists,  chemists,  and  mathe- 
maticians. Observe  the  extraordinary  variety  and 
the  range  of  the  teaching  which  every  university 

227 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

must  aim  to  give.  Cornell's  description  of  the  uni- 
versity he  wished  to  found  was  a  just  one:  "I 
would  found  an  institution  in  which  any  one  may 
study  anything."  Nothing  short  of  this  is  the  true 
aim  of  a  university  in  teaching.  It  should  cover 
the  whole  field  of  human  knowledge,  and  be  able  to 
bring  its  students  to  the  very  frontier  of  acquired 
knowledge  in  every  direction.  Its  methods  of 
teaching  are  necessarily  diverse ;  they  include  the 
recitation,  the  lecture  by  the  professor  and  the  lec- 
ture by  the  student,  the  individual  instruction  in 
laboratories,  written  exercises  in  great  variety,  ob- 
servation in  the  field,  bedside  study  for  medicine 
and  surgery,  quick  note-taking  and  sketching, 
and  the  elaborate  thesis.  Intimate  conversational 
and  critical  methods  for  advanced  students  are 
comprehended  under  the  terms  "  conference "  and 
"  seminary."  In  each  of  the  great  professions  there 
are  opportunities  for  wide  excursions  outside  of 
the  most  necessary  fields  of  knowledge.  Thus,  in 
the  study  of  divinity  the  historical  courses  may 
include  not  only  the  history  of  the  Christian 
church,  but  the  comparative  study  of  all  known 
religions;  in  medicine  there  is  the  great  field  of 
veterinary  medicine,  now  so  important  for  the 
advancement  of  human  medicine;  and  in  law 
there  is  a  wide  range  of  inquiry  into  the  history 
of  legal  institutions  and  legal  principles,  most  of 
which  may  be  traced  back  for  centuries.  Again, 
in  every  active  and  progressive  university  there  is 
an  incessant  development  of  scientific  classifica- 
tions, a  new  ordering  of  facts,  and  a  new  presenta- 

228 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

tion  of  the  results  of  investigation.  Every  genera- 
tion recasts  the  statements  and  theories  of  the 
preceding,  and  presents  old  facts  under  new  forms. 
This  brief  outline  may  perhaps  picture  to  you  the 
ideals  of  a  university  as  teacher. 

2.  Let  us  next  consider  the  university  as  store- 
house. At  the  heart  of  every  university  there  must 
be  a  great  library.  A  small  collection  of  books  will 
do  for  the  elementary  student,  but  the  advanced 
student  needs  a  large  collection;  and  the  univer- 
sity that  undertakes  to  provide  for  the  wants  of 
advanced  students  in  all  departments  absolutely 
requires  an  immense  collection  of  books,  and 
must  have  the  means  of  buying  every  year  all 
the  really  good  books  that  are  issued  in  the  civi- 
lized world.  This  means  great  cost,  not  only  for 
the  purchase  of  books  and  periodicals,  but  for 
cataloguing  and  shelving,  and  then  for  delivering 
the  books  to  readers  with  expedition  and  security. 
On  its  collections  of  books  alone  Harvard  Univer- 
sity spends  between  forty-five  and  fifty  thousand 
dollars  a  year,  and  could  advantageously  spend 
much  more.  A  century  ago  books  were  almost 
the  only  great  store  which  a  university  was  ex- 
pected to  accumulate,  but  now  it  must  possess, 
besides  the  library,  great  collections  in  every  branch 
of  natural  history  —  collections  of  stuffed  animals, 
dried  plants,  fossils,  rocks,  and  minerals ;  of  living 
trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers;  and  of  apparatus  in 
chemistry,  physics,  and  biology.  Again,  it  is  not 
enough  to  make  great  collections  to  illustrate  the 
actual  condition  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  and  mm- 
15*  229 


Tbe  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

eral  kingdoms ;  the  university  must  illustrate  past 
conditions  also  by  means  of  geological,  historical, 
and  arch89ological  collections.  A  great  university 
must  also  illustrate  the  history  of  the  fine  arts,  if 
not  by  original  works,  at  least  by  reproductions ; 
and  such  a  museum  should  illustrate  the  art,  not 
of  a  single  nation,  but  of  all  nations,  and  not  of  a 
single  generation,  but  of  all  generations  which 
have  left  to  us  any  of  their  handiwork.  The  great 
collections  of  a  university  are  necessary  means  of 
teaching ;  but  they  teach  not  only  the  students  of 
the  university,  but  the  public  at  the  university 
seat.  The  means  of  illustrating  nature  in  great 
collections  constantly  improve ;  thus,  within  recent 
years  artistic  glass-blowing  has  enabled  museums 
of  botany  and  zoology  to  illustrate  in  large  models 
what  the  human  eye  sees  only  by  the  aid  of 
powerful  microscopes,  and  the  most  fragile  and 
transitory  objects,  like  delicate  flowers,  are  per- 
fectly reproduced  in  durable  form.  In  like  manner 
the  most  minute  and  delicate  forms  of  animal  life 
are  reproduced  in  glass,  and  represented  to  the 
naked  eye  just  as  they  appear  to  the  observer 
using  high  powers  in  a  microscope.  The  museums 
of  a  great  university  are  crowded  with  objects  of 
the  most  wonderful  beauty  —  beauty  of  form  and 
beauty  of  color,  as  in  birds,  butterflies,  flowers,  and 
minerals.  They  teach  classification,  succession, 
transmutation,  growth,  and  evolution;  but  they 
teach  also  the  abounding  beauty  and  loveliness  of 
creation. 
The  function  of  a  university  considered  as  a 
230 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

storehouse  is  indefinitely  costly,  but  it  is  indispen- 
sable ;  and  as  man's  knowledge  of  nature  enlarges 
tbis  function  of  the  university  will  enlarge.  It 
may  be  doubted  whether  the  American  method  of 
providing  for  the  higher  education  will  prove  ade- 
quate to  the  enormous  expenditure  which  the  uni- 
versity, considered  as  a  storehouse,  requires;  but 
if  the  endowment  method  fails  we  shall  have  to 
fall  back  on  the  European  plan  of  governmental 
subsidies.  The  university  as  storehouse  is  essen- 
tial to  the  intellectual  progress  of  the  nation. 

3.  The  university  seeks  new  truth.  A  univer- 
sity is  a  society  of  learned  men,  each  a  master  in 
his  field;  each  acquainted  with  what  has  been 
achieved  in  all  past  time  in  his  special  subject; 
each  prepared  to  push  forward  a  little  the  present 
limits  of  knowledge;  each  expecting  and  hoping 
to  clear  up  some  tangle  or  bog  on  the  frontier,  or 
to  pierce,  with  his  own  little  search-light,  if  only  by 
a  hand's-breadth,  the  mysterious  gloom  which  sur- 
rounds on  every  side  the  area  of  ascertained  truth. 
Hence  universities  are  places  of  research,  of  dil- 
igent inquiry  for  new  or  forgotten  truth.  This 
function  is  quite  as  indispensable  as  either  of  the 
two  former.  It  is  indispensable  for  two  reasons : 
first,  because  a  university  which  is  not  a  place  of 
research  will  not  long  continue  to  be  a  good  place 
of  teaching ;  and,  secondly,  because  this  incessant, 
quiet,  single-minded  search  after  new  truth  is  the 
condition  of  both  material  and  intellectual  progress 
for  the  nation  and  for  the  race.  We  easily  appre- 
hend the  fact  that  the  studies  of  Aristotle,  Hip- 

231 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

pocrates,  Kant,  Descartes,  and  Adam  Smith,  of 
Copernicus,  Newton,  Faraday,  and  Darwin,  are  the 
means  of  intellectual  progress ;  but  we  do  not  so 
clearly  discern  that  material  progress  also  depends 
on  a  long  series  of  patient,  unrewarded  investi- 
gations which  have  been  conducted  by  obscure 
students,  generation  after  generation,  in  secluded 
seats  of  learning. 

An  extraordinary  development  of  electrical  in- 
vention has  astonished  the  world  within  the  last 
ten  years;  but  those  numerous  electrical  inven- 
tions were  made  possible  only  by  the  previous 
studies  of  obscure  men  who  contributed  this  little 
fact,  or  that  little  principle,  to  the  acquired  stock 
of  electrical  science.  Professor  Koch  of  Berlin 
makes  an  alleged  discovery  which  profoundly  in- 
terests the  whole  civilized  world ;  but  he  has  used 
the  discoveries  in  bacteriology  of  scores  of  un- 
known men  who  were  his  necessary  forerunners ; 
and  the  whole  science  of  bacteriology  is  indebted 
for  all  its  most  recent  and  striking  progress  to  the 
invention  of  the  immersion-lens,  which  gave  the 
microscope  new  power  for  biological  research. 
Thus  a  discovery  in  one  science  enables  some  long- 
prepared  and  waiting  student  to  take  a  great  step 
in  another,  the  first  discoverer  having  not  the 
least  idea  of  the  direction  in  which  his  work  may 
be  made  most  immediately  available.  Many  com- 
mercial ventures,  new  forms  of  business,  and  new 
methods  of  transportation  spring  really  from  re- 
mote, obscure,  and  apparently  useless  discoveries, 
the  applications  of  which  their  discoverers  never 

2}2 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

imagined,  and  would  probably  have  been  profoundly- 
indifferent  to. 

In  this  function  of  truth-seeking  by  scientific 
research  in  every  field  of  human  knowledge, 
the  university  develops  a  very  peculiar  and  in- 
teresting kind  of  human  being  —  the  scientific 
specialist.  The  motives,  hopes,  and  aims  of  the 
investigator  —  I  care  not  in  what  field  of  know- 
ledge—  are  different  from  those  of  ordinary  hu- 
manity. He  must  have  a  livelihood;  but  he  is 
almost  completely  indifferent  to  money,  except  as 
it  secures  simple  livelihood  and  opportunity  for 
his  work.  He  is  wholly  indifferent  to  notoriety ; 
he  even  shrinks  from  and  abhors  it ;  and  his  idea 
of  fame  is  different  from  that  of  other  men.  He 
would  indeed  like  to  have  his  name  favorably 
known,  not  to  millions  of  people,  but  to  five  or  six 
students  of  the  Latin  dative  case,  or  of  the  Greek 
particle  av,  or  of  fossil  beetles,  or  of  meteorites,  or 
of  starfish.  He  much  dislikes  to  see  his  name  in 
the  newspaper ;  but  he  hopes  that  a  hundred  years 
hence  some  student  of  his  specialty  may  read  his 
name  with  gratitude  in  an  ancient  volume  of  the 
proceedings  of  some  learned  academy.  He  is  an 
intense  and  diligent  worker ;  but  the  masses  of 
mankind  would  think  he  was  wasting  his  time. 
He  eagerly  desires  what  he  calls  results  of  investi- 
gation ;  but  these  results  would  seem  to  the  popu- 
lace to  have  no  possible  human  interest.  He  is 
keen-scented,  devoted,  and  enthusiastic,  but  for 
objects  and  ends  so  remote  from  common  topics 
that  he  rarely  possesses  what  is  called  common 

^3} 


Tbe  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

sense.  The  market-place  and  the  forum  are  to 
him  deserts,  and  for  the  common  pursuits  of  men 
he  would  say  impatiently  that  he  had  no  time,  as 
Louis  Agassiz  said  when  some  one  asked  him  why 
he  did  not  make  money.  A  university  should  pro- 
vide a  large  number  of  these  specialists  with  a 
livelihood,  with  all  the  needed  facilities  for  their 
work,  such  as  libraries,  collections,  laboratories, 
and  assistants,  and  also  with  opportunity  to  teach. 

Such  being  the  three  principal,  direct  objects  or 
aims  of  a  university,  let  us  consider  some  of  the 
less  direct  but  still  important  purposes  which  it 
aims  to  fulfil. 

1.  In  the  first  place,  a  great  university  exerts  a 
unifying  social  influence.  It  is  resorted  to  in  most 
countries,  notably  in  our  own  country,  alike  by 
rich  and  poor,  by  the  children  of  the  educated 
and  the  uneducated — in  short,  by  the  children  of 
families  of  all  sorts  and  conditions.  Upon  the  roll 
of  the  students  of  Harvard  University  in  any  year 
will  be  found  the  names  of  a  few  sons  of  the  rich 
and  of  many  more  sons  of  very  poor  families, 
while  the  great  body  of  students  belong  to  the 
middle  class.  In  most  American  colleges,  the  older 
as  well  as  the  younger,  the  majority  of  students 
are  the  sons  of  men  who  were  not  themselves 
highly  educated.  In  no  American  college  is  there 
any  considerable  proportion  of  the  sons  of  gradu- 
ates of  that  college.  In  Harvard  College  —  that 
department  of  Harvard  University  which  gives  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts — the  number  of  sons  of 
graduates  very  seldom,  if  ever,  exceeds  one  eighth 

234 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

of  the  whole  number.  In  all  American  universities, 
in  those  of  New  England  quite  as  conspicuously 
as  in  the  Western,  the  whole  organization  of  college 
life  is  intensely  democratic,  and  there  is  a  com- 
plete fusion  of  the  whole  body  of  students  in  all 
the  intellectual  and  all  the  athletic  pursuits  of  the 
place.  I  am  not  acquainted  with  any  portion  of 
American  society,  high  or  low,  rich  or  poor,  in 
which  there  are  so  few  distinctions  and  separations 
based  on  social  inequalities  as  in  the  American 
colleges.  The  separation  between  neighbors  in  a 
New  York  tenement-house  of  the  poorest  sort  is 
often  profound  —  quite  as  deep  and  as  persistent 
as  social  divisions  in  the  more  cultivated  or  the 
richer  parts  of  society.  It  is  a  great  mistake  to 
suppose  that  social  exclusiveness  is  characteristic 
only  of  the  fashionable  or  wealthy  class.  It  mani- 
fests itself  in  every  walk  of  American  life,  as  in- 
deed in  all  human  society,  whether  savage  or  civi- 
lized. These  distinctions  are  less  conspicuous  in 
American  colleges  and  universities  than  in  any 
other  large  congregations  of  Americans  coming 
from  families  which  are  strange  to  one  another. 

2.  In  a  true  university  the  differences  between 
the  various  religious  denominations  are  softened, 
and  mutual  respect  between  these  diverse  Chris- 
tian organizations  is  cultivated.  The  great  uni- 
versities cannot  be  conducted  as  strict  denomina- 
tional organizations.  In  a  nation  which  has  no 
established  church,  and  in  which  no  one  denomi- 
nation includes  more  than  a  small  minority  of  the 
population,  it  is  impossible  to  found  a  university 

235 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

on  a  sect.  Even  in  those  nations  of  Europe  which 
maintain  established  churches  the  universities 
have  abandoned  the  policy  of  confining  their 
privileges  to  the  members  of  that  church.  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  are  now  wide  open  to  dissenters. 
The  universities  of  Germany  make  no  distinction 
between  Catholic  and  Lutheran.  The  University 
of  France  is  equally  open  to  Catholic,  Protestant, 
and  Jew.  With  the  exception  of  State  universities 
in  the  United  States,  almost  all  American  univer- 
sities have  had  a  denominational  origin ;  but  the 
leading  universities  have  distinctly  abandoned  a 
denominational  policy.  Harvard  University  was 
founded  to  educate  ministers  of  the  established 
church  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay ;  and 
for  nearly  two  hundred  years  it  was  exclusively  in 
the  control  of  the  members  of  that  established 
church ;  but  for  a  generation  past  it  has  altogether 
escaped  from  these  limitations.  Its  students  now 
belong  to  every  religious  communion,  from  the 
Roman  Catholic  to  the  Jew  and  the  Japanese 
Buddhist.  No  denomination  is  represented  by 
more  than  a  small  minority  among  its  students ; 
and  its  officers  are  selected  for  their  fitness  only, 
without  the  least  regard  to  their  religious  affilia- 
tions. Yale  University,  which  was,  like  Harvard, 
founded  in  the  interest  of  a  single  denomination, — 
the  Congregationalist, —  is  now  returned  to  the 
Bureau  of  Education  at  Washington,  by  its  own 
officers,  as  unsectarian.  The  State  universities, 
like  Michigan,  and  the  new  universities,  like  the 
Johns  Hopkins,  Cornell,  and  Clark,  are  avowedly 

236 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

free  from  sectarian  control.  In  such  institutions 
great  bodies  of  American  youth  acquire  a  respect 
for  each  other's  religious  inheritances,  and  learn 
that  conduct  has  very  little  to  do  with  creed,  or  at 
least  is  not  dependent  upon  theological  opinion. 
Bringing  together  the  young  men  of  different  reli- 
gious communions  is  one  of  the  most  wholesome 
functions  of  great  universities,  and  it  is  particu- 
larly wholesome  in  a  great  Protestant  democracy 
like  our  own. 

At  Harvard  University  a  peculiarly  impressive 
lesson  in  religious  unity  and  cooperation  is  system- 
atically taught.  The  university  maintains  daily 
morning  prayers  and  Sunday  evening  services 
throughout  the  year,  and  a  Thursday  afternoon 
service  through  the  winter  months.  To  conduct 
these  services  it  employs  six  preachers  belonging 
to  different  denominations,  all  representative  men, 
drawn  in  the  main  from  the  immediate  vicinity  of 
the  college,  but  coming  in  part  from  places  some- 
what remote  from  Cambridge.  These  gentlemen, 
whose  theological  opinions  are  very  different,  unite 
to  conduct  our  chapel  services,  and  for  four  years 
this  united  effort  has  been  extraordinarily  success- 
ful and  instructive.  The  union  on  essentials,  with 
the  inevitable  disregard  of  non-essential  diversi- 
ties, teaches  a  lesson  of  the  utmost  value  to  the 
thousands  before  whom  this  truly  religious  work 
goes  on. 

These  lessons  in  religious  toleration  which  great 
universities  can  teach  are  the  more  precious  be- 
cause we  already  see  firmly  established  in  this 

237 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

country  a  large  number  of  denominational  insti- 
tutions, and  their  number  is  likely  to  increase. 
Within  twenty  years  numerous  Roman  Catholic 
colleges  and  seminaries  (and  lately  a  strong  Cath- 
olic university)  have  been  successfully  founded, 
and  almost  all  the  Protestant  sects  have  each  at 
least  one  college  or  university.  I  believe  that  the 
segregation  of  the  youth  of  the  country  in  distinct 
denominational  institutions  would  be  undesirable 
for  the  country  and  undesirable  for  the  denomina- 
tions which  should  thus  separate  their  youth.  The 
influence  of  an  educated  Roman  Catholic  in  an 
American  community  is  diminished,  not  increased, 
if  his  education  has  deprived  him  of  all  knowledge 
of  his  Protestant  contemporaries  and  of  the  Prot- 
estant mode  of  thought  and  feeling.  Precisely  in 
the  same  way  the  influence  in  after  life  of  the 
members  of  the  Episcopalian  body  is  diminished, 
not  increased,  by  their  habit  of  resorting  to  schools 
and  colleges  under  the  exclusive  control  of  their 
own  religious  communion.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  country  has  gained  much  by  the  education  of 
the  youth  of  all  these  denominations,  even  if  that 
education  be  less  comprehensive  and  broadening 
than  it  might  have  been.  An  educated  Roman 
Catholic,  an  educated  Anglican,  or  an  educated 
Baptist  is  much  better  for  all  American  uses  than 
an  uneducated  Roman  Catholic,  Anglican,  or  Bap- 
tist. What  is  desirable,  however,  is  that  all  the 
principal  colleges  and  universities  of  the  country 
should  be  conducted  without  denominational  bias, 
and  should  be  resorted  to  by  young  men  of  every 

238 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

religious  faith  represented  among  the  American 
people. 

3.  A  university  has  a  unifying  influence  by  its 
effect  upon  political  divisions.  A  university  which 
draws  its  students  from  a  large  area,  from  North 
and  South,  from  East  and  West,  is  sure  to  contain 
numerous  representatives  of  every  political  party 
in  the  country.  It  counts  among  its  students 
Democrats  and  Republicans,  free-traders  and  pro- 
tectionists, spoilsmen  and  reformers.  Prohibition- 
ists and  high-license  advocates.  Not  an  opinion  in 
politics  or  on  social  problems  but  has  numerous 
representatives  in  a  large  body  of  young  men  drawn 
from  all  parts  of  the  country.  There  is  inevitably 
incessant  discussion  on  all  these  themes  in  any 
large  concourse  of  intelligent  American  youth. 
Societies  and  leagues  are  organized  to  maintain 
this  discussion ;  debates  arise,  and  public  men,  as 
well  as  university  teachers,  are  invited  by  student 
organizations  to  address  them.  There  is,  in  short, 
a  continual  ferment  and  agitation  on  all  questions 
of  public  interest.  This  collision  of  views  is  whole- 
some and  profitable ;  it  promotes  thought  on  great 
themes,  converts  passion  into  resolution,  culti- 
vates forbearance  and  mutual  respect,  and  teaches 
young  men  to  admire  candor,  moral  courage,  and 
independence  of  thought  on  whatever  side  these 
noble  qualities  may  be  displayed.  It  is  a  serious 
objection  to  a  local  college  or  university  that  these 
diversities  of  view  on  political  and  social  topics 
are  not  so  likely  to  be  therein  represented  as  in 
a  university  of  national  resort.    Harvard  Univer- 

239 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

sity  has,  in  this  respect,  had  great  good  fortune  of 
late  years,  drawing  its  students  from  all  parts  of 
the  country,  although  a  decided  majority  still  come 
from  New  England.  It  is  an  excellent  field  for 
the  cultivation  of  political  toleration,  and  for 
training  young  men  in  political  honesty  and  sin- 
cerity. The  majority  of  its  graduates  and  its 
undergraduates  are  Republican  —  at  any  rate,  they 
were  so  until  very  lately;  in  all  probability  are 
still  so.  In  recent  years  it  has  had  the  good  fortune 
to  provide  both  parties  with  their  candidates  in 
many  Massachusetts  contests.  Fifteen  months 
ago,  as  I  pointed  out  in  an  address  I  made  at  that 
time,  both  candidates  for  governor,  the  presidents 
of  both  of  the  State  conventions,  and  the  writers 
of  both  political  platforms  were  gi'aduates  of  Har- 
vard. This  year  both  candidates  for  governor  and 
several  candidates  for  Congress  on  each  side  were 
again  Harvard  graduates,  while  in  the  strictly 
local  contest  for  the  mayoralty  of  the  city  of  Cam- 
bridge both  candidates  were  graduates  of  Harvard. 
This  spirit  of  impartiality  is  one  very  desirable 
for  any  university.  At  Cambridge  we  should  like 
to  continue  to  jtrain  as  many  candidates  as  possible 
for  both  the  gi-eat  parties  of  the  country. 

4.  A  university  of  national  resort  exerts  a  uni- 
fying influence  through  the  mutual  knowledge 
which  the  young  men  get  of  one  another  and  hold 
through  life.  Every  year  hundreds  of  young  men 
go  out  from  each  of  the  great  American  universi- 
ties and  scatter  through  the  whole  country.  In 
their  several  places  of  residence  they  ordinarily 

240 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

rise  to  places  of  trust  and  influence ;  and  they  re- 
main united  for  life,  however  separated  by  dis- 
tance; united  by  common  associations,  and  by 
bonds  of  friendship  and  mutual  respect.  This 
binding  influence  might  be  greatly  increased  in  the 
United  States  if  our  young  men  should  adopt,  as 
they  might  wisely  do,  the  German  practice  of  mi- 
grating from  one  university  to  another  while  seek- 
ing the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  or  Doctor  of 
Science.  German  unity  has  been  greatly  promoted 
by  this  practice  of  university  men ;  and  the  union 
of  these  United  States  has  been  greatly  consolidated 
by  this  influence  of  colleges  and  universities,  and 
will  be  still  further  cemented  in  time  to  come. 

5.  Again,  American  universities  are  schools  of 
public  spirit  for  the  communities  in  which  they  are 
situated.  They  promote  thought  and  labor  for  the 
public  on  the  part  of  private  persons  in  two  ways : 
first,  by  demanding  a  great  deal  of  gratuitous  ser- 
vice from  their  trustees,  or  managers;  and,  sec- 
ondly, by  encouraging  private  benefactions  for 
pubHc  objects.  The  Teutonic  virtue  called  "  pub- 
lic spirit "  is  the  salvation  of  a  democracy.  Every 
American  university  demands  from  its  trustees  or 
managers  a  great  deal  of  unpaid  service ;  and  this 
service  is  in  many  cases  of  high  quality,  requiring 
good  judgment,  knowledge  of  men,  and  knowledge 
of  affairs.  Indeed,  so  difficult  is  the  service  of 
trustee  for  institutions  of  the  higher  education 
that  every  community  has  to  be  trained  for  gener- 
ations before  it  can  furnish  an  adequate  supply 
of  men  competent  for  these  functions.  It  is  a 
^*  241 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

great  advantage  of  the  older  institutions  of  learn- 
ing that  the  communities  in  which  they  are  situ- 
ated have  been  brought  up  to  provide  experienced 
and  judicious  trustees.  The  charter  under  which 
Harvard  University  is  now  conducted  was  granted 
in  1650,  and  has  never  since  been  altered.  Under 
that  charter  seven  men  administer  the  whole  prop- 
erty of  the  University,  select  in  the  first  instance 
its  officers  and  teachers,  and  propose  its  laws. 
These  seven  men  now  meet  regularly  once  a  fort- 
night, for  from  two  to  three  hours  in  the  middle 
of  the  day,  and  give  much  other  time  besides  to  the 
service  of  the  University.  This  Corporation,  as  it 
is  called,  was  for  a  long  time  the  only  corpora- 
tion in  the  colony  and  province  of  Massachusetts, 
and  service  upon  it  is  held  in  eastern  Massachu- 
setts to  be  a  highly  honorable  distinction.  Of  the 
seven  persons  only  the  president  and  treasurer  re- 
ceive any  compensation.  The  transmitted  expe- 
rience of  that  body  is  of  untold  value  to  the 
University.  Many  American  colleges  are  nominally 
governed  by  boards  of  trustees,  which  meet  only 
once  or  twice  a  year.  In  such  cases  the  real  gov- 
ernment lies  elsewhere;  but  the  real  governing 
body,  whatever  it  be,  must  always  be  composed  of 
men  of  sagacity,  experience,  and  public  spirit. 
The  diffusion  of  public  spirit  throughout  an  Amer- 
ican community  by  practice  on  governing  boards 
of  academies,  colleges,  universities,  hospitals,  asy- 
limis,  art  museums,  and  libraries  is  one  of  the  most 
striking  characteristics  of  our  democracy,  and  one 
of  its  chief  safeguards.    The  exercise  of  any  such 

242 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

function  takes  a  man  out  of  himself,  and  out  of  his 
eveiy-day  work,  and  makes  him  think  and  work  for 
some  broader  and  higher  interest.  In  these  places 
an  intelligent  and  liberal  man  has  a  chance  to 
serve  the  public  for  many  consecutive  years,  which 
is  not  ordinarily  the  case  in  public  elective  offices 
in  the  United  States.  He  can  therefore  really  ac- 
complish something  considerable  for  the  public 
during  his  term  of  service  on  a  charitable  or  edu- 
cational trust.  Thousands  of  men  scattered  over 
the  United  States  are  receiving  to-day  this  educa- 
tion in  public  spirit  and  public  service,  greatly  to 
the  benefit  of  the  community  as  well  as  their  own. 
In  the  whole  group  of  institutions  thus  managed 
under  American  law  and  custom  the  university  is 
the  highest,  the  most  interesting,  and  the  most 
serviceable. 

A  university  develops  public  spirit  by  giving 
men  and  women  who  are  disposed  to  help  their 
kind  the  best  possible  opportunity  to  do  so.  Who- 
ever wishes  to  do  some  perpetual  good  in  this 
world,  whoever  hopes  to  win  that  finest  luxury, 
must  exert  his  influence  upon  the  young,  the 
healthy,  and  the  promising.  Hence  university 
endowments  are  the  quickest,  most  hopeful,  and 
most  lasting  means  of  doing  good,  generation  after 
generation,  to  humankind  at  large,  through  the 
most  promising  youth  which  each  generation  selects 
to  receive  the  highest  training.  A  university  en- 
dowment works  quickly.  It  takes  a  youth  of 
eighteen,  and  in  six  or  seven  years  transforms  him 
into  a  social,  educational,  or  commercial  power  in 

243 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

the  world.  It  works  most  hopefully  because  it 
works  on  selected  material  —  selected  by  the  force 
of  their  own  capacities,  or  selected  by  the  vigor 
and  attainments  of  their  parents.  And  its  influence 
is  lasting.  First,  because  fine,  healthy,  highly 
trained  brains  are  the  most  amazingly  fruitful  of 
products.  Seed-wheat  or  -corn  is  nothing  to  them ; 
they  not  only  work  through  a  lifetime  in  the  ser- 
vice of  man,  but  fire  innumerable  trains  of  thought 
and  action,  and  they  also  transmit  more  or  less  of 
their  quality  to  succeeding  generations.  And,  sec- 
ondly, because  universities  are  the  most  lasting  of 
artificial  institutions,  except  a  highly  organized 
church.  The  ancient  universities  of  Europe  have 
survived  the  destruction  and  reconstruction  of 
every  other  institution,  legal,  governmental,  or 
commercial,  except  that  of  the  Greek  and  the 
Roman  churches.  They  have  lived  through  the 
rise  and  fall  of  dynasties,  parliaments,  and  consti- 
tutions ;  they  have  seen  all  society  remodeled  from 
its  foundations,  and  all  methods  of  commerce  and 
war  profoundly  changed.  Even  in  our  own  new 
country  we  see  manifested  the  same  durability 
amid  surrounding  changes.  Thus,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity has  seen  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay 
transformed  into  the  province,  and  the  province 
into  the  State ;  and  it  has  seen  the  State  undergo 
fundamental  modifications  in  its  population,  indus- 
tries, and  religions.  It  is  older  than  any  existing 
corporation,  court,  or  governmental  organization  in 
Massachusetts. 
In  still  another  way  the  well-conducted  univer- 
244 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

sity  encourages  beneficence  of  private  persons  for 
public  objects :  it  gives  reasonable  assurance  that 
the  benefaction  will  be  continuously  useful,  and  will 
be  preserved  to  do  its  work  century  after  century. 
No  smallest  gift  made  to  Harvard  University  for  a 
permanent  purpose  has  ever  been  lost.  Thus,  in 
1727,  the  Rev.  Thomas  Cotton  of  London  gave 
£33  6s.  ^d.  toward  the  president's  salary,  and  the 
pT-esident  still  receives  between  seven  and  eight 
dollars  a  year  from  that  fund.  In  1681  Samuel 
"Ward  gave  the  College  an  island  in  Boston  harbor, 
called  Bumkin  Island,  and  to  this  day  that  gift  yields 
a  rent  of  fifty  dollars  a  year.  It  may  in  time  to 
come  yield  a  great  deal  more.  Two  ministers, 
Nathaniel  Appleton  and  Henry  Gribbs,  both  of 
whom  became  members  of  the  Corporation  in  the 
first  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  left  small  leg- 
acies to  the  College  for  the  benefit  of  poor  students. 
A  lineal  descendant  of  both  of  these  men,  a  de- 
scendant in  the  fifth  or  sixth  generation,  the  son 
of  a  farmer,  receives  his  tuition  free  in  the  Law 
School  to-day  because  of  the  benefactions  of  these 
two  remote  ancestors.  Seventy-five  years  ago 
Abiel  Smith  gave  to  the  College  twenty  thousand 
dollars  wherewith  to  establish  a  professorship  of 
the  French  and  Spanish  languages  and  of  belles- 
lettres.  That  professorship  has  been  successively 
held  by  George  Ticknor,  Henry  Wadsworth  Long- 
fellow, and  James  Russell  Lowell.  Who  can  esti- 
mate the  amount  of  service  which  that  single 
modest  gift  has  rendered  to  American  literature  ? 
Whoever  gives  wisely  to  a  strong  university  plants 


16* 


245 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

the  most  fruitful  of  seed,  which  will  fructify  for 
centuries. 

6.  Again,  a  university  stands  for  intellectual 
and  spiritual  domination  —  for  the  forces  of  the 
mind  and  soul  against  the  overwhelming  load  of 
material  possessions,  interests,  and  activities  which 
the  modern  world  carries.  This  influence  is  most 
precious  in  a  new  and  crude  community  like  the 
United  States,  which  is  still  engaged  in  subduing 
a  wilderness  to  human  uses.  Over  the  greater 
portion  of  our  national  domain  the  stumps  are 
still  standing  in  the  fields,  the  highways  have 
never  been  built,  the  mines  are  unopened,  and  the 
deserts  are  not  irrigated.  Under  these  conditions 
material  production  is  the  chief  interest  of  the 
people,  and  wealth  rather  than  health  seems  to 
be  the  principal  object  of  society.  A  university 
keeps  alive  philosophy,  poetry,  and  science,  and 
maintains  ideal  standards.  It  stands  for  plain  liv- 
ing against  luxury,  in  a  community  in  which  luxu- 
rious habits  are  constantly  increasing  and  spread- 
ing. A  great  university  contains  hundreds  of  men 
—  teachers,  librarians,  and  curators  —  who  live  on 
modest  salaries  with  full  knowledge  that  they  will 
never  be  rich,  and  that  they  can  leave  no  consider- 
able inheritance  to  their  children.  They  do  not 
even  aim  at  the  accumulation  of  property ;  often 
they  are  only  too  indifferent  and  careless  about 
money.  They  seek  happiness  in  other  and  higher 
ways  than  in  the  prevailing  pursuit  of  wealth ; 
and  being  men  of  more  than  the  average  ability, 
industry,  and  rectitude,  they  are  persons  of  con- 

246 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

sideration  in  the  community  where  they  live,  al- 
though their  mode  of  life  is  simple  and  secluded. 
The  luxurious  classes  find  it  difficult  to  understand 
the  delights  of  such  men ;  and  the  scholars  find  it 
as  difficult  to  imagine  the  gratifications  of  luxu- 
rious idleness.  The  common  amusements  of  so- 
ciety have  no  charm  for  scholars.  No  man  can  be 
a  successful  student  who  does  not  devote  his  even- 
ings to  work ;  and  the  ordinary  university  teacher 
counts  an  evening  given  to  the  theater  or  to  social 
amusement  as  an  evening  lost  or  wasted.  In 
short,  a  university  exemplifies  through  its  teachers 
"Wordsworth's  "  plain  living  and  high  thinking,"  and 
in  this  respect  its  influence  is  of  the  greatest  value 
in  any  large  American  community. 

7.  Again,  a  university  is  in  all  countries  a  pa- 
triotic institution.  Of  aU  national  institutions 
the  university  has  almost  always  been  the  most 
liberal  and  progressive.  This  is  its  natural  ten- 
dency, for  "man  thinking"  —  to  use  Emerson's 
phrase  —  is  progressive,  and  youth,  particularly 
speculative  youth,  is  apt  to  be  revolutionary.  All 
poets  and  philosophers  prophesy;  their  specula- 
tive thought  far  outruns  the  practical  work  of 
legislators,  manufacturers,  merchants,  and  farmers. 
If  we  would  learn  what  governmental  and  social 
problems  the  next  generation  is  to  be  at  work 
upon,  we  must  study  the  forelooking  of  poets, 
teachers,  men  of  letters,  and  studious  youth  in  the 
passing  generation.  Samuel  Adams  taking  his 
master's  degree  at  Harvard  University  in  1743 
maintained  the  affirmative  in  a  public  discussion 

247 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

of  the  question  whether  it  be  lawful  to  resist  the 
supreme  magistrate  if  the  commonwealth  cannot 
otherwise  be  preserved.  It  was  thirty-two  years 
later  that  the  embattled  farmers  fired,  at  Concord 
Bridge,  the  shot  heard  round  the  world.  Twenty- 
five  years  before  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
William  EUery  Channing  stated  and  enforced  all 
the  ethical  principles  which  underlay  the  whole 
long  struggle  against  slavery.  Longfellow,  Lowell, 
Bryant,  and  Whittier  put  into  living  verse  the  sen- 
timents which,  thrilling  through  millions  of  hearts 
years  after  they  wrote,  supported  the  Northern 
States  through  four  long  years  of  desolating  war. 
In  Europe  the  universities,  with  rare  exceptions, 
have  been,  and  still  are,  the  seats  of  political 
and  social  agitation.  In  the  Massachusetts  of 
1770  General  Gage  correctly  described  Harvard 
College  as  a  "hotbed  of  sedition."  When  the 
detachment  of  troops  which  was  to  fortify  Bun- 
ker Hill  paraded  on  the  little  green  opposite 
the  college  on  the  evening  of  June  16,  1775,  it 
was  the  president  of  Harvard  College  —  the  pa- 
triot minister  Langdon  —  who  stood  on  the  door- 
step of  the  house  in  which  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes 
was  afterward  born,  and  invoked  the  divine  bless- 
ing on  their  enterprise.  We  remember  how  the 
universities  and  colleges  of  the  North  sent  forth 
their  young  men  to  the  Union  armies.  The  col- 
leges and  universities  furnish  also  the  historians 
who  record  the  nation's  achievements,  and  keep 
alive  for  future  generations  the  memory  of  great 
examples  and  heroic  deeds   in   the  council  and 

248 


The  Aims  of  the  Higher  Education 

the  field.  I  need  but  mention  the  names  of  Pal- 
frey, Prescott,  Bancroft,  Motley,  and  Parkman.  It 
is  the  teachers  of  the  country  who  build  the  most 
enduring  monuments  to  the  country's  heroes  by 
telling  their  stories  to  the  children  they  instruct. 
It  is  but  natural,  then,  that  universities  should  be 
always  and  everywhere  patriotic.  They  seek 
ideals,  and  our  country  in  the  modern  sense  is  one 
of  the  noblest  of  ideals,  being  no  longer  repre- 
sented by  an  idealized  person,  as  the  king  or 
queen,  but  being  rather  a  personified  ideal,  free, 
strong,  and  beautiful. 

Do  you  ask,  Are  all  these  aims  of  the  higher  edu- 
cation anywhere  attained  ?  Nowhere,  as  yet.  But 
they  surely  will  be  as  our  republic  grows  in  wealth, 
wisdom,  and  true  worth. 


249 


SHORTENING  AND  ENRICHING 
THE  GRAMMAR-SCHOOL  COURSE 

National  Educational  Association,  Brooklyn,  Februaky  i6,  1892 


SHORTENING  AND  ENRICHING 
THE  GRAMMAR-SCHOOL  COURSE 


WE  may  properly  use  the  term  "  shortening  ^ 
in  either  of  two  senses.  In  the  first  place, 
the  number  of  grades  may  be  reduced  from  ten 
to  nine,  or  from  nine  to  eight,  so  that  the  com- 
bined primary-  and  grammar-school  periods  shall 
end  at  fourteen  or  thirteen ;  or,  secondly,  the  studies 
of  the  present  course  may  be  reduced  in  volume,  or 
in  variety,  or  in  both,  so  that  there  shall  be  room 
for  the  introduction  of  new  subjects.  I  observe 
that  both  kinds  of  shortening  have  actually  been 
begun  in  various  towns  and  cities,  and  I  believe 
that  both  are  desirable,  if  not  universally,  at  least 
in  most  localities.  The  argument  for  the  first  kind 
of  shortening  is  a  compact  and  convincing  one. 
Averaging  the  rates  of  progress  of  bright  children 
with  those  of  dull  children  being  the  great  curse 
of  a  graded  school,  it  is  safer  to  make  the  regular 
programme  for  eight  grades,  and  lengthen  it  for  the 
exceptionally  slow  pupils,  than  to  make  it  for  ten 
grades,  and  shorten  it  for  the  exceptionally  quick. 

253 


Shortening  and  Enriching  the 

In  other  words,  since  holding  back  the  capable 
children  is  a  much  greater  educational  injustice 
than  hurrying  the  incapable,  the  programme  should 
be  so  constructed  as  to  give  all  possible  chances  of 
avoiding  the  greater  evil.  Without  altering  the 
nominal  length  of  the  programme  in  years,  a  great 
shortening  of  the  course  can  be  effected  for  part 
of  the  children  simply  by  permitting  the  capable 
ones  to  do  two  years'  work  in  one.  I  heard  a  gram- 
mar-school master  testifying  a  few  days  ago,  in 
a  teachers'  meeting,  that  nearly  one  quarter  of  the 
pupils  in  his  school  (which  numbers  about  six  hun- 
dred and  fifty  children)  were  successfully  accom- 
plishing this  double  task.  Such  a  statemeut 
opens  a  cheerful  vista  for  one  who  desires  to  see 
the  grammar-school  course  both  shortened  and 
enriched. 

With  no  more  words  about  the  first  kind  of 
shortening,  I  turn  to  the  second  kind,  namely,  the 
desirable  reductions  in  the  volume  and  variety  of 
the  present  studies.  The  first  great  reduction 
should,  I  believe,  be  made  in  arithmetic.  I  find  that 
it  is  very  common,  in  programmes  of  the  grades, 
to  allot  to  arithmetic  from  one  eighth  to  one  sixth 
of  the  whole  school  time  for  nine  or  ten  years.  In 
many  towns  and  cities  two  arithmetics  are  used 
during  these  years  —  a  small  one  of  perhaps  one 
hundred  pages,  followed  by  a  larger  one  of  two  or 
three  hundred  pages.  Now,  the  small  book  ordi- 
narily contains  all  the  arithmetic  that  anybody 
needs  to  know  —  indeed,  much  more  than  most  of 
us  ever  use.    Before  a  body  of  experts  like  this  it 

■254 


Grammar-Scbool  Course 

were  superfluous  to  enlarge  on  this  proposition. 
On  grounds  of  utility,  geometry  and  physics  have 
stronger  claims  than  any  part  of  arithmetic  beyond 
the  elements,  and  for  mental  training  they  are  also 
to  be  preferred.  By  the  contraction  of  arithmetic, 
room  is  made  for  algebra  and  geometry.  In  a  few 
schools  these  subjects  have  already  been  intro- 
duced, with  or  without  mention  in  the  official  pro- 
grammes, and  they  have  proved  to  be  interesting 
and  intelligible  to  American  children  of  from  eleven, 
to  thirteen  years  of  age,  just  as  they  are  to  European 
children.  Moreover,  the  attainments  of  the  pupils 
in  arithmetic  are  not  diminished  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  new  studies,  but  rather  increased.  The 
algebraic  way  of  solving  a  problem  is  often  more 
intelligible  than  the  arithmetical,  and  mensuration 
is  easier  when  founded  on  a  good  knowledge  of 
elementary  geometry  than  it  is  in  the  lack  of  that 
foundation.  The  three  subjects  together  are  vastly 
more  interesting  than  arithmetic  alone,  pursued 
through  nine  consecutive  years.  Secondly,  lan- 
guage studies,  including  reading,  writing,  spelling, 
grammar,  and  literature,  occupy  from  one  third  to 
two  fifths  of  most  grade  programmes.  There  is 
ample  room  here  for  the  introduction  of  the  optional 
study  of  a  foreign  language,  ancient  or  modern,  at 
the  fourth  or  fifth  grade.  Here  it  is  to  be  observed 
that  nothing  will  be  lost  to  English  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  foreign  language.  In  many  schools  the 
subject  of  grammar  still  fills  too  large  a  place  on  the 
programme,  although  great  improvement  has  taken 
place  in  the  treatment  of  this  abstruse  subject, 

255 


Sbortening  and  Enriching  the 

which  is  so  unsuitable  for  children.  In  the  "  Be- 
ginner's Latin  Book,"  by  Messrs.  Collar  and  Daniell, 
I  noticed,  five  years  ago,  an  excellent  description  of 
the  amount  of  knowledge  of  English  grammar 
needed  by  a  pupil  of  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age 
about  to  begin  Latin.  Of  course  the  pupil  who  is 
not  to  begin  Latin  needs  no  more.  All  the  gram- 
mar which  the  learner  needed  to  know  before 
beginning  Latin  was  "  the  names  and  functions  of 
the  parts  of  speech  in  English,  and  the  meanings 
of  the  common  grammatical  terms,  such  as  subject 
and  predicate,  case,  tense,  voice,  declension,  con- 
junction," etc.  Manuals  have  now  been  prepared 
in  considerable  variety  for  imparting  this  limited 
amount  of  grammatical  information  by  examples 
and  practice  rather  than  by  rules  and  precepts ;  so 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  time  formerly  spent  on 
English  grammar  can  now  be  saved  for  more  prof- 
itable uses.  Thirdly,  geography  is  now  taught 
from  books  and  flat  atlases,  chiefly  as  a  memory 
study,  and  much  time  is  given  to  committing  to 
memory  masses  of  facts  which  cannot  be  retained, 
and  which  are  of  little  value  if  retained.  By 
grouping  physical  geography  with  natural  history, 
and  political  geography  with  history,  and  by  pro- 
viding proper  apparatus  for  teaching  geography, 
time  can  be  saved,  and  yet  a  place  made  for  much 
new  and  interesting  geographical  instruction. 
Fourthly,  a  small  saving  of  time  can  be  made  for 
useful  subjects  by  striking  out  the  bookkeeping 
which,  in  many  towns  and  cities,  is  found  in  the 
last  grade.    This  subject  is  doubtless  included  in 

256 


Grammar-Scbool  Course 

the  grammar-school  programme  because  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  of  practical  value ;  but  I  believe  it  to 
be  the  most  useless  subject  in  the  entire  programme, 
for  the  reason  that  the  bookkeeping  taught  is  a 
kind  of  bookkeeping  never  found  in  any  real  busi- 
ness establishment.  Every  large  business  has,  in 
these  days,  its  own  forms  of  accounting  and  book- 
keeping, which  are,  for  the  most  part,  peculiar 
to  itself.  Almost  every  large  firm  or  corporation 
has  its  own  method,  with  printed  headings,  sched- 
ules, bill-heads,  invoices,  and  duplicating  order- 
books,  adapted  to  its  own  business,  and  intended 
to  simplify  its  accounts  and  reduce  to  lowest  terms 
the  amount  of  writing  necessary  to  keep  them. 
What  a  boy  or  girl  can  learn  at  school  which  will 
be  useful  in  after  life  in  keeping  books  or  accounts 
for  any  real  business  is  a  good  handwriting,  and 
accuracy  in  adding,  subtracting,  multiplying,  and 
dividing  small  numbers.  It  is  a  positive  injury  to 
a  boy  to  give  him  the  impression  that  he  knows 
something  about  bookkeeping,  when  he  has  only 
learned  an  unreal  system  which  he  will  never  find 
used  in  any  actual  business.  At  best,  bookkeeping 
is  not  a  science,  but  only  an  art  based  on  conven- 
tions. As  trades  and  industries  have  been  differen- 
tiated in  the  modern  world,  bookkeeping  has  been 
differentiated  also,  and  it  is,  of  course,  impossible 
to  teach  in  school  the  infinite  diversities  of  prac- 
tice. 

I  have  thus  indicated  in  the  briefest  manner 
the  reductions  which  may  be  conveniently  made 
in  some  of  the  present  subjects  in  order  to  effect  a 
"  257 


Sbortening  and  Enriching  the 

shortening  of  the  present  grammar-school  pro- 
gramme. My  next  topic  is,  diversifying  and  enrich- 
ing it.  The  most  complete  statement  of  the  new 
subjects  proposed  for  the  grammar-school  pro- 
gramme is  that  made  by  the  Association  of  Colleges 
in  New  England  at  their  meeting  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity last  November.  That  association  then  in- 
vited the  attention  of  the  public  to  certain  changes 
in  the  grammar-school  programme  which  it  recom- 
mended for  gradual  adoption.  These  changes  are 
five  in  number. 

The  first  is  the  introduction  of  elementary  natu- 
ral history  into  the  earlier  years  of  the  programme, 
to  be  taught  by  demonstrations  and  practical  exer- 
cises rather  than  from  books.  The  term  "  natural 
history  "  was  doubtless  intended  to  include  botany, 
zoology,  geology,  and  physical  geography.  Some 
room  for  these  subjects  is  already  made  in  most 
grammar-school  programmes,  and  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  association  refers  as  much  to  methods 
of  teaching  as  to  time  allotted  to  the  subject.  The 
association  recommends  that  the  teaching  be  de- 
monstrative, and  that  adequate  apparatus  be  pro- 
vided for  teaching  these  subjects.  There  is  a 
lamentable  lack  of  the  proper  apparatus  for  teach- 
ing geography  in  the  public  schools;  indeed,  in 
many  schools  there  is  no  proper  apparatus  for 
teaching  geography,  or  any  other  natural-history 
subject,  to  young  children.  Natural-science  appa- 
ratus has  been  provided  in  some  exceptional  high 
schools;  but  as  a  rule  grammar  schools  are  still 
destitute  in  this  important  respect. 

258 


Grammar-Scbool  Course 

The  second  recommendation  is  the  introduction 
of  elementary  physics  into  the  later  years  of  the 
programme,  to  be  taught  by  the  laboratory  method, 
and  to  include  exact  weighing  and  measuring  by 
the  pupils  themselves. 

The  third  and  fourth  recommendations  cover 
the  introduction  of  algebra  and  geometry  at  the 
age  of  twelve  or  thirteen. 

The  fifth  is  the  offering  of  opportunity  to  study 
French  or  German  or  Latin,  or  any  two  of  these 
languages,  from  and  after  the  age  of  ten. 

3.  Such  are,  in  brief,  the  proposals  for  shorten- 
ing and  enriching  the  grammar-school  course.  I 
want  to  use  the  rest  of  the  time  allotted  to  me  in 
discussing  the  objections  to  these  various  changes. 

The  first  objection  I  take  up  is  the  objection  to 
a  reduction  in  the  time  devoted  to  arithmetic. 
Many  teachers  are  shocked  at  the  bare  idea  of  re- 
ducing the  time  given  to  arithmetic,  because  they 
believe  that  arithmetic  affords  a  peculiarly  valu- 
able training  —  first,  in  reasoning,  and,  secondly,  in 
precision  of  thought  and  accuracy  of  work.  They 
perceive  that  the  greater  part  of  the  school  pro- 
gramme calls  only  for  memorizing  power,  and  they 
think  that  arithmetic  develops  reasoning  power. 
The  fact  is,  however,  that  mathematical  reasoning 
is  a  peculiar  form  of  logic  which  has  very  little 
application  to  common  life,  and  no  application  at 
all  in  those  great  fields  of  human  activity  where 
perfect  demonstration  is  not  to  be  obtained.  As  a 
rule,  neither  the  biological  nor  the  moral  sciences 
can  make  use  of  mathematical  reasoning.     More- 

259 


Shortening  and  Enriching  the 

over,  so  far  as  mathematical  reasoning  is  itself 
concerned,  variety  of  subject  is  very  useful  to 
the  pupils.  The  substitution  of  algebra  and  geom- 
etry for  part  of  the  arithmetic  is  a  clear  gain  to 
the  pupil,  so  far  as  acquaintance  with  the  logic  of 
mathematics  goes.  Again,  practice  in  thinking 
with  accuracy  and  working  with  demonstrable 
precision  can  be  obtained  in  algebra,  geometry, 
and  physics  just  as  well  as  in  arithmetic.  It  is 
quite  unnecessary  to  adhere  to  the  lowest  and 
least  interesting  of  these  exact  subjects  in  order 
to  secure  adequate  practice  in  precision  of  thought 
and  work. 

The  second  objection  is  that  there  are  children 
in  the  grammar  schools  who  are  incapable  of  pur- 
suing these  new  subjects.  Assuming  that  this 
allegation  is  true  of  some  children,  I  have  to  re- 
mark, first,  that  we  shall  not  know  till  we  have 
tried  what  proportion  of  children  are  incapable  of 
pursuing  algebra,  geometry,  physics,  and  some 
foreign  language  by  the  time  they  are  fourteen 
years  of  age.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  we  Ameri- 
cans habitually  underestimate  the  capacity  of  pu- 
pils at  almost  every  stage  of  education,  from  the 
primary  school  through  the  university.  The  expec- 
tation of  attainment  for  the  American  child,  or  for 
the  American  college  student,  is  much  lower  than 
the  expectation  of  attainment  for  the  European. 
This  error  has  been  very  grave  in  its  effects  on 
American  education,  all  along  the  line  from  the 
primary  school  through  the  university,  and  till 
within   twenty  years    the   effects  were   nowhere 

260 


Grammar-Scbool  Course 

worse  than  at  the  college  grade.  It  seems  to  me 
probable  that  the  proportion  of  grammar-school 
children  incapable  of  pursuing  geometry,  algebra, 
and  a  foreign  language  would  turn  out  to  be  much 
smaller  than  we  now  imagine;  but  though  this 
proportion  should  be  large,  it  would  not  justify 
the  exclusion  of  all  the  capable  children  from  op- 
portunities which  they  could  profit  by.  At  the 
worst,  this  objection  can  only  go  to  show  that  it 
will  be  necessary  to  adopt  in  the  grammar  schools 
a  flexible  instead  of  a  rigid  system  —  some  selec- 
tion or  choice  of  studies  instead  of  a  uniform  re- 
quirement. Those  children  who  are  competent  to 
study  a  foreign  language  should  certainly  have  the 
opportunity  of  doing  so  at  the  proper  age,  that 
is,  not  later  than  ten  or  eleven  years;  and  those 
who  are  competent  to  begin  geometry  at  twelve 
and  algebra  at  thirteen  should  have  the  chance. 
If  experience  shall  prove  that  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  grammar-school  children  are  incapable 
of  pursuing  the  higher  studies,  that  fact  will  only 
show  that  the  selection  of  appropriate  studies  for 
children  by  their  teachers  should  be  adopted  as  a 
policy  by  the  public  grammar  school.  To  discrimi- 
nate between  pupils  of  different  capacity,  to  select 
the  competent  for  suitable  instruction,  and  to  ad- 
vance each  pupil  with  appropriate  rapidity,  will 
ultimately  become,  I  believe,  the  most  important 
functions  of  the  public-school  administrator  — 
those  functions  in  which  he  or  she  will  be  most 
serviceable  to  families  and  to  the  state. 
Another  objection  to  the  changes  proposed  often 
17*  261 


Shortening  and  Enriching  the 

takes  this  form:  they  are  said  to  be  aristocratic 
in  tendency.  The  democratic  theory,  it  is  said, 
implies  equality  among  the  children,  uniformity  of 
programme,  uniform  tests  for  promotion,  and  no 
divisions  in  the  same  school-room  according  to  ca- 
pacity or  merit.  I  need  not  say  to  this  audience 
that  these  conceptions  of  true  democracy  in  schools 
are  fallacious  and  ruinous.  Democratic  society 
does  not  undertake  to  fly  in  the  face  of  nature  by 
asserting  that  all  children  are  equal  in  capacity 
or  that  all  children  are  alike  and  should  be 
treated  alike.  Everybody  knows  that  children  are 
infinitely  diverse — that  children  in  the  same  family, 
even,  are  apt  to  be  very  different  in  disposition, 
temperament,  and  mental  power.  Every  child  is 
a  unique  personality.  It  follows,  of  course,  that 
uniform  programmes  and  uniform  methods  of  in- 
struction, applied  simultaneously  to  large  numbers 
of  children,  must  be  unwise  and  injurious  —  an 
evil  always  to  be  struggled  against  and  reformed, 
so  far  as  the  material  resources  of  democratic  so- 
ciety will  permit.  It  is  for  the  interest  of  society, 
as  weU  as  of  the  individual,  that  every  individual 
child's  peculiar  gifts  and  powers  should  be  devel- 
oped and  trained  to  the  highest  degree.  Hence,  in 
the  public  schools  of  a  democracy  the  aim  should 
be  to  give  the  utmost  possible  amount  of  individ- 
ual instruction,  to  grade  according  to  capacity 
just  as  far  as  the  number  of  teachers  and  their 
strength  and  skill  will  permit,  and  to  promote  pu- 
pils, not  by  battalions,  but  in  the  most  irregular 
and  individual  way  possible.     A  few  days  ago  I 

262 


Grammar-Scbool  Course 

heard  an  assistant  superintendent  in  an  important 
city  declare  that  many  grammar-school  teachers 
in  his  city  objected  to  any  division  among  the 
fifty  or  more  pupils  in  each  room  —  any  division, 
that  is,  according  to  the  attainments  and  powers 
of  the  individual  pupils.  They  wanted  all  the 
pupils  in  a  given  room  to  be  in  one  grade,  to 
move  together  like  soldiers  on  parade,  and  to  ar- 
rive at  examination  day,  having  all  performed  pre- 
cisely the  same  tasks,  and  made  the  same  progress 
in  the  same  subjects.  If  that  were  a  true  portrait 
of  the  city  graded  school,  it  would  be  safe  to  pre- 
dict that  the  urban  public  school  would  before  long 
become  nothing  but  a  charity  school  for  the  chil- 
dren of  the  dependent  classes.  Intelligent  Ameri- 
cans will  not  subject  their  children  to  such  a  dis- 
cipline when  they  once  understand  what  it  means. 
The  country  district  school,  in  which,  among  forty 
or  fifty  pupils,  there  are  always  ten  or  a  dozen 
distinct  classes  at  different  stages  and  advancing 
at  different  rates  of  progress,  would  remain  as  the 
only  promising  type  of  the  free  school.  Not  only 
is  it  no  serious  objection  to  the  new  proposals  that 
they  must  diminish  uniformity  in  schools:  it  is 
their  strongest  recommendation. 

So  far  from  the  changes  proposed  being  of  aris- 
tocratic tendency,  they  are  really  essential  to  a 
truly  democratic  school  system ;  for  they  must  be 
adopted  and  carried  into  effect  before  the  children 
of  the  poor  can  obtain  equal  access  with  the  chil- 
dren of  the  rich  to  the  best  education  they  are 
capable  of,  whatever  the  grade  of  that  education 

263 


Shortening  and  Enriching  the 

may  be.  Accessibility  of  appropriate  opportunity 
is  the  essence  of  democratic  society.  Not  equality 
of  gifts,  attainments,  or  powers,  for  that  equality 
is  unnatural  and  impossible ;  not  abundance  of  in- 
appropriate opportunities,  for  such  abundance  is 
of  no  avail ;  but  accessibility  of  such  appropriate 
opportunities  as  the  individual  can  utilize  for  his 
own  benefit  and  that  of  society.  The  American 
gi*ammar-school  programme  now  actually  prevents 
an  intelligent  child  from  beginning  the  study  of  a 
foreign  tongue  at  the  right  age.  We  aU  know 
that  that  age  is  very  early  —  long  before  the  high- 
school  period.  It  prevents  him  from  beginning 
the  study  of  algebra  and  geometry  at  the  right 
age.  It  makes  it  impossible  for  him  to  get  a 
chance  at  the  right  kind  of  study  of  natural  science. 
If  a  boy  is  not  to  go  to  the  high  school,  he  loses 
that  chance  forever,  under  our  present  system.  If 
he  is  going  to  the  high  school,  he  does  not  get  the 
chance  till  much  too  late.  The  poor  boy  in  the 
United  States  should  have  as  good  a  chance  as  the 
child  of  a  rich  man  to  obtain  the  best  school  train- 
ing which  his  character  and  powers  fit  him  to 
receive.  Is  not  that  a  fair  statement  of  what 
democratic  society  may  reasonably  aim  at  and 
seek  to  effect  through  its  own  grammar  schools  I 
Yet  the  existing  grammar-school  programme  ac- 
tually prevents  the  poor  boy  from  getting  that 
chance.  The  rich  man  can  obtain  for  his  children 
a  suitably  varied  course  of  instruction,  with  much 
individual  teaching,  in  a  private  or  endowed 
school;  but  the  immense  majority  of  American 

264 


Grammar-Scbool  Course 

children  are  confined  to  the  limited,  uniform, 
machine  programme  of  the  graded  grammar  school. 
A  democratic  society  was  never  more  misled  as  to 
its  own  interest  than  in  supposing  such  a  pro- 
gramme to  be  for  the  interest  of  the  masses.  The 
grades  for  pupils  of  from  six  to  fifteen  years  of  age 
are  an  obstruction  to  the  rise,  through  democratic 
society,  of  the  children  who  ought  to  rise.  Uniform- 
ity is  the  curse  of  American  schools.  That  any 
school  or  college  has  a  uniform  product  should  be 
regarded  as  a  demonstration  of  inferiority  —  of 
incapacity  to  meet  the  legitimate  demands  of  a 
social  order  whose  fundamental  principle  is  that 
every  career  should  be  open  to  talent.  Selection 
of  studies  for  the  individual,  instruction  addressed 
to  the  individual,  irregular  promotion,  grading  by 
natural  capacity  and  rapidity  of  attainment,  and 
diversity  of  product  as  regards  age  and  acquisi- 
tions, must  come  to  characterize  the  American 
public  school,  if  it  is  to  answer  the  purposes  of  a 
democratic  society. 

It  is  alleged  as  a  fourth  objection  that  the  changes 
proposed  are  chiefly  for  the  advantage  of  the  well- 
to-do  children  whose  education  is  to  be  carried  be- 
yond the  grammar  school  to  the  high  school,  and 
possibly  to  the  college  above  the  high  school. 
They  are  indeed  for  the  interest  of  this  class  of 
children ;  but  they  are  much  more  for  the  interest 
of  the  children  who  are  not  going  to  the  high 
school,  and  for  whom,  therefore,  the  grammar  school 
is  to  provide  all  the  systematic  education  they  will 
ever  receive.    The  Association  of  Colleges  in  New 

265 


Sbortening  and  Enriching  the 

England  distinctly  says  that  it  makes  its  recom- 
mendations in  the  interest  of  the  public-school  sys- 
tem as  a  whole;  "but  most  of  them  are  offered 
more  particularly  in  the  interest  of  those  children 
whose  education  is  not  to  be  continued  beyond  the 
grammar  school."  Take,  for  example,  the  subject 
of  geometry.  It  has  many  and  very  important  ap- 
plications in  the  arts  and  trades.  Every  mechanic 
needs  some  knowledge  of  it.  Its  applications  are 
as  important  as  those  of  arithmetic,  if  we  except 
the  very  simplest  and  commonest  arithmetical  oper- 
ations. That  the  great  mass  of  American  children 
should  leave  school  without  ever  having  touched 
this  subject  —  except,  perhaps,  in  arithmetic,  under 
the  head  of  mensuration  —  is  a  grave  public  misfor- 
tune. To  introduce  variety  into  the  grammar- 
school  programme  is  in  itself  likely  to  profit  the  chil- 
dren who  are  never  to  go  to  school  after  they  are 
fourteen  years  of  age  even  more  than  the  children 
who  are.  A  child  who  is  dull  in  one  subject  may 
be  bright  in  a  different  subject.  Thus,  a  child  who 
has  no  gift  in  language  may  be  keen  and  quick  in 
natural-history  studies ;  a  child  who  has  no  taste 
for  arithmetic  may  prove  unusually  strong  in 
geometry;  one  whose  mind  is  not  easily  moved 
through  purely  mental  exercises  may  be  intellec- 
tually developed  through  drawing  and  manual 
training.  In  college  we  are  extremely  familiar  with 
these  diversities,  and  the  elective  system  is  now 
giving,  in  most  American  colleges,  free  play  for  the 
profitable  exhibition  and  cultivation  of  these  di- 
verse gifts.    In  a  similar  manner,   the  grammar 

266 


Grammar-Scbool  Course 

school  will  be  better  for  even  the  dull  and  slow 
children  if  its  studies  are  made  more  various  and 
its  whole  system  more  flexible. 

A  fifth  objection  to  the  introduction  of  new  sub- 
jects is  that  children  are  already  overworked  in 
school.  In  an  address  which  I  gave  rather  more 
than  a  year  ago,  I  pointed  out  that  there  are  two 
effective  mechanical  precautions  against  the  ill 
effects  attributed  to  overwork  at  school  —  precau- 
tions which,  it  is  delightful  to  see,  are  more  and 
more  adopted.  They  are  good  ventilation  and  the 
systematic  use  of  light  gymnastics  at  regular  in- 
tervals during  school  hours.  School-time  ought 
to  be  the  best  managed  of  all  the  day,  from  a  sani- 
tary point  of  view,  excepting  those  hours  which 
the  children  pass  out  of  doors.  If  the  school-room 
were  invariably  healthier  in  every  respect  than  the 
average  home,  we  should  hear  less  about  overwork 
at  school.  There  is,  however,  a  third  precaution 
against  overwork  which  is  quite  as  important  as 
either  of  those  already  mentioned;  it  is  making 
the  school  work  interesting  to  the  children.  Four 
years  ago  I  asked  the  attention  of  this  department 
of  the  National  Educational  Association  to  the  de- 
pressing effect  which  lack  of  interest  and  conscious 
progress  in  school  work  has  upon  children.  To 
introduce  new  and  higher  subjects  into  the  school 
programme  is  not  necessarily  to  increase  the  strain 
upon  the  child.  If  this  measure  increases  the  in- 
terest and  attractiveness  of  the  work  and  the  sense 
of  achievement,  it  will  diminish  weariness  and  the 
risk  of  hurtful  strain. 

267 


Shortening  and  Enriching  the 

Lastly,  there  is  an  apprehension  lest  the  intro- 
duction of  the  new  subjects  recommended  should 
increase  existing  difl&culties  with  regard  to  promo- 
tion. Parents  are  sensitive  about  the  promotion 
of  their  children.  They  want  the  dull  ones  and 
the  bright  to  be  promoted  at  the  same  rate.  Their 
sympathies  are  quite  as  apt  to  be  with  the  slow 
children  as  with  the  quick.  I  believe  that  this 
practical  difficulty  should  be  met,  in  part,  by  the 
abandonment  of  uniform  attainment,  or  of  a  stan- 
dard of  required  knowledge,  as  ground  of  promo- 
tion. In  Harvard  College,  where  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  a  uniform  programme  of  study  for  all  stu- 
dents, and  where,  indeed,  there  is  small  chance  that 
any  two  students  out  of  fourteen  hundred  and  fifty 
will  pursue  the  same  course  of  studies  during  their 
four  years  of  residence,  we  have  long  since  aban- 
doned uniform  attainment  as  ground  of  promotion 
from  one  class  to  another.  The  sole  ground  of 
promotion  is  reasonable  fidelity.  I  venture  to  be- 
lieve that  this  is  the  true  ground  of  promotion  in 
grammar  schools  as  well,  and  that,  by  the  sole  use 
of  this  principle  in  promoting,  the  difficulty  now 
under  consideration  would  be  much  alleviated,  if 
not  done  away  with.  The  right  time  for  advan- 
cing a  child  to  the  study  of  a  new  subject  is  the 
first  moment  he  is  capable  of  comprehending  it. 
All  our  divisions  of  the  total  school  period  into 
years,  and  into  primary,  grammar,  and  high 
schools,  are  artificial,  and  in  most  cases  hurtful  or 
hindering  to  the  individual.  The  whole  school  life 
should  be  one  unbroken  flow  from  one  fresh  inter- 

268 


Grammar-Scbool  Course 

est  and  one  new  delight  to  another,  and  the  rate  of 
that  flow  ought  to  be  different  for  each  different 
child.  Economical  school  administration  inevitably 
interferes  somewhat  with  the  desirable  continuity 
and  variety  of  motion  \  but  the  most  skilful  and 
wisest  administration  is  that  which  interferes  least. 
On  reviewing  the  progress  of  this  reform  since  I 
had  the  honor  of  discussing  the  question,  "Can 
school  programmes  be  shortened  and  enriched  ? " 
before  this  Department  of  Superintendence,  four 
years  ago,  I  see  many  evidences  that  a  great  and 
beneficent  change  in  public-school  programmes  is 
rapidly  advancing.  The  best  evidence  is  to  be 
found  in  the  keen  interest  which  superintendents 
and  teachers  take  in  the  discussion  of  the  subject. 
Through  them  the  proposed  improvements  will 
be  wrought  out  in  detail;  their  influence  will  be 
successfully  exerted  on  parents,  committees,  and 
the  public  press ;  and  their  reward  will  be,  first, 
the  daily  sight  of  happier  and  better-trained  chil- 
dren, and,  secondly,  the  elevation  of  their  own 
profession. 


269 


UNDESIRABLE  AND  DESIRABLE 
UNIFORMITY  IN   SCHOOLS 

National  Educational  Association,  Saratoga,  July  12,   1892 


UNDESIRABLE  AND  DESIRABLE 
UNIFORMITY  IN  SCHOOLS 


MY  subject  is  "  Undesirable  and  Desirable  Uni- 
formity in  Schools,"  the  word  "schools" 
being  used  in  a  large  sense.  To  present  it  with 
tolerable  completeness  I  shall  be  obliged  to  state 
some  facts  and  principles  already  familiar  to  many 
persons  in  this  professional  assemblage.  Educa- 
tion is  properly  the  development  and  training  of 
the  individual  body,  mind,  and  will ;  but  when  it  is 
systematized,  and  provided  for  many  thousands  of 
pupils  simultaneously,  it  almost  inevitably  takes 
to  military  or  mechanical  methods;  and  these 
methods  tend  to  produce  a  lock-step  and  a  uniform 
speed,  and  result  in  a  drill  at  word  of  command 
rather  than  in  the  free  development  of  personal 
power  in  action.  The  interests  of  the  individual 
are  frequently  lost  sight  of,  or,  rather,  are  served 
only  as  the  individual  can  be  treated  as  an  average 
atom  in  a  homogeneous  mass.  This  natural  ten- 
dency in  systems  of  education  I  believe  to  be  a 
great  evil,  particularly  in  a  democratic  society, 


y 


18 


273 


Undesirable  and  Desirable 

where  other  influences,  governmental,  industrial, 
and  social,  tend  toward  averaging  the  human  stock. 
1.  Let  us  first  consider  in  some  detail  the  unde- 
sirable uniformity  in  schools.  The  graded  school 
of  large  towns  and  cities  will  supply  our  first  illus- 
tration. In  any  room  of  a  perfectly  graded  gram- 
mar school  we  find,  in  the  fall,  a  single  class  of  from 
forty  to  sixty  children  who  are  supposed  to  have  had 
the  same  preparation  for  their  coming  year's  work ; 
who  are  to  have  the  same  lessons,  in  the  same 
books,  at  the  same  times,  under  the  same  teacher, 
throughout  the  year;  who  are  to  make  as  nearly 
as  possible  the  same  progress  every  day  in  each 
subject,  and  to  submit  to  the  same  tests  at  the 
same  intervals.  They  are  all  kept  together,  day  by 
day,  so  far  as  is  possible.  The  bright  ones  never 
work  to  their  utmost,  and  are  frequently  marking 
time ;  the  slow  ones  are  urged  forward  at  a  rate 
which  drives  some  of  them  to  despair;  and  the 
ideal  of  the  class  is  that  of  equal  preparation,  equal 
capacity,  equal  progress,  and  equal  attainments. 
If,  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  the  children  are  ob- 
trusively unequal  in  capacity  or  attainments,  it  is 
an  inconvenience  to  be  regretted.  The  teacher  will 
not  be  able  to  "  handle  her  class  "  so  easily  as  she 
could  if  they  were  all  of  the  same  mental  size  and 
strength.  If,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  they  have  not 
been  pretty  well  evened  up,  the  teacher  has  been 
less  successful  than  she  could  have  wished.  This 
is  an  extreme  statement  of  the  most  undesirable 
uniformity  in  schools.  This  is  the  sense  in  which 
close  grading  is  an  educational  curse.    In  my  opin- 

274 


Uniformity  in  Schools 

ion,  the  right  aims,  in  any  room  of  a  primary  or 
grammar  school,  are  to  recognize  at  the  beginning 
of  the  year,  as  promptly  as  possible,  the  different 
capacities  and  powers  of  the  children;  to  carry 
them  forward,  throughout  the  year,  each  at  his  own 
gait  and  speed ;  and  to  turn  them  out  at  the  end 
very  much  more  different  in  capacity  and  attain- 
ments than  they  were  at  the  beginning.  It  has 
always  seemed  to  me  that  a  teacher  who  did  not 
discharge  his  pupils  at  the  end  of  each  year  much 
more  unlike  in  powers  and  acquisitions  than  they 
were  at  the  beginning  was  a  proved  failure.  We 
all  know  that  children,  like  adults,  are  not  alike, 
but  infinitely  different ;  that  the  object  of  educa- 
tion, as  of  life,  is  to  bring  out  the  innate  powers  and 
develop  to  the  highest  possible  degree  the  natural 
and  acquired  capacities  of  each  individual.  An 
education  or  training,  therefore,  which  at  the  end 
of  four  years,  ten  years,  or  twenty  years  leaves  the 
subjects  of  it  alike  in  skill,  capacity,  or  power  of 
service  must  have  been  ill  directed. 

The  individuals,  in  any  group  of  men  and 
women  who  start  together  in  active  life  at  about 
twenty  years  of  age,  become,  through  their  various 
work,  service,  and  experience,  more  and  more  dif- 
ferent as  they  go  on.  We  expect  that  at  sixty  their 
powers  will  be  very  different,  having  been  exer- 
cised in  unlike  fields  and  in  various  measure,  and 
that  their  acquired  stores  of  knowledge  and  expe- 
rience will  be  as  different  as  their  powers.  This 
variety  is  at  once  the  strength  and  the  charm  of 
human  society.    Now,  the  effect  of  school  work  on 

275 


Undesirable  and  Desirable 

children  should  be  analogous  to  the  effect  of  life 
on  adults ;  for  school  is  preparation  for  life. 

Let  us  take  another  illustration,  at  a  higher 
grade  —  the  secondary  school,  represented  in  the 
United  States  by  the  high  school,  the  academy, 
and  the  private  preparatory  school.  These  schools 
hold  children  until  the  seventeenth,  eighteenth, 
or  nineteenth  year.  By  that  time  of  life  almost 
every  peculiar  mental  or  physical  gift  which  by 
training  can  be  made  of  value  to  the  individual  or 
to  society  is  already  revealed  to  its  possessor  and 
to  any  observant  friend,  provided  that  the  youth 
has  had  access  to  those  various  fields  of  human 
knowledge  and  research  in  which  the  various  men- 
tal capacities  and  activities  find  play.  If  a  youth 
has  never  had  access  to  any  studies  except  Latin, 
Greek,  and  mathematics,  he  will  perhaps  remain 
ignorant  of  his  powers  in  scientific  or  historical 
study.  If  he  has  never  had  access  to  any  language 
but  his  own,  his  linguistic  gifts  may  be  concealed 
from  himself  and  his  friends.  This  revelation  to 
himself  of  a  youth's  natural  predispositions  and 
faculties  is  one  of  the  principal  objects  of  secon- 
dary education.  Now,  if  the  only  school  that  the 
youth  has  attended  has  had  a  narrow,  uniform 
programme,  containing  alimited  number  of  subjects, 
without  options  among  them,  this  important  object 
in  secondary  education  may  not  have  been  at- 
tained for  the  individual.  A  good  secondary 
school  must  have  a  programme  of  studies  larger  and 
wider  than  any  single  pupil  can  follow,  else  its 
range  of  subjects  will  be  too  small  to  permit  the 

276 


Uniformity  in  Schools 

sure  fulfilment  of  this  all-important  function  of  a 
good  secondary  school  —  the  thorough  exploration 
of  all  its  pupils'  capacities. 

Let  me  further  illustrate  undesirable  uniformity 
in  schools  with  a  higher  programme  still  —  that  of 
an  old-fashioned  college.  A  young  man,  on  complet- 
ing his  college  course,  is  to  make  a  choice  of  a  pro- 
fession. A  large  majority  of  the  graduates  of  all  our 
colleges  go  into  the  three  learned  professions,  so 
called,  into  teaching,  journalism,  and  the  other 
literary  pursuits,  and  into  the  various  scientific 
professions.  I  need  not  say  that  the  choice  of  a 
profession  is  of  immeasurable  importance  in  deter- 
mining each  man's  future  happiness  and  service- 
ableness.  Now,  these  professions  are  so  very  unlike, 
calling  for  such  different  mental  attributes  and 
personal  qualities,  that  the  choice  among  them 
should  always  be  led  up  to  by  clear  indications  of 
the  individual's  aptitudes  and  tastes  obtained  in 
earlier  years.  The  young  man  who  is  fit  to  make 
a  physician  should  have  been  earlier  drawn  irre- 
sistibly to  chemistry,  physics,  and  natural  history. 
He  should  have  exhibited  a  natural  tendency 
toward  those  subjects,  and  that  tendency  should 
have  been  gratified.  The  young  man  who  is  to 
be  a  minister  should  have  been  drawn  in  college 
to  the  study  of  language,  philosophy,  ethics,  soci- 
ology, and  political  science,  and  should  have  had 
ample  opportunity  to  obey  those  natural  attrac- 
tions. The  young  man  who  is  to  be  a  lawyer  should 
have  felt  disposed  to  study  in  college  Eoman  and 
mediaBval  history,  the  history  of  institutions  and 
18*  277 


Undesirable  and  Desirable 

governments,  political  history,  ethics,  rhetoric,  and 
logic,  and  to  practise  discussion  and  debate  in 
speech  and  writing.  The  journalist,  long  before 
he  decides  to  begin  his  specific  training  as  a  writer 
for  the  press,  should  have  been  conscious  of  a 
preference  for  literature,  sociology,  political  sci- 
ence, and  history,  and  should  have  been  drilled 
daily  for  years  in  the  writing  of  English,  under 
criticism.  Now,  the  uniform  prescribed  college 
curriculum  gave  no  proper  opportunity  for  the 
students  to  follow,  each  for  himself,  his  natural 
leadings  toward  the  wise  choice  of  a  profession. 

Considering  the  diversity  of  discipline  and  know- 
ledge which  should  underlie  the  professional  train- 
ing for  these  various  callings,  is  it  not  wonderful 
that  many  generations  of  teachers  should  have 
advocated  a  uniform  preliminary  training  for  them 
all?  Yet  the  old-fashioned,  uniform,  prescribed, 
elementary  college  course  was  just  that  —  a  pre- 
liminary training  supposed  to  be  equally  good  for 
those  destined  to  any  of  the  learned,  scientific,  and 
literary  professions.  It  was  a  vivid  example  in- 
deed of  undesirable  uniformity  in  schools. 

People  have  always  recognized  the  great  differ- 
ence of  powers  between  remarkable  individuals 
and  the  common  run  of  men,  and  even  the  differ- 
ence between  one  remarkable  individual  and  an- 
other. Mankind  has  always  refused  to  believe 
that  its  greatest  benefactors  belonged  to  the  com- 
mon race  of  men.  Its  great  rulers,  inventors,  and 
teachers  have  generally  been  deified.  Everybody 
sees  that  Shakspere,  Napoleon,  and  Lincoln  were 

278 


Uniformity  in  Schools 

types  of  quite  indescribable  diversity  in  character 
and  mental  powers,  but  mankind  has  apparently 
failed  to  perceive  how  different  ordinary  people 
are  one  from  another ;  and  human  society,  until  it 
became  democratic  in  organization,  never  had  a  fair 
chance  to  win  the  proper  advantages  from  the  real 
diversity  of  ordinary  individuals.  It  required  the 
mobility  of  democratic  social  classification  to  prove 
the  importance  to  society  of  discovering  all  the 
small,  peculiar  gifts  and  faculties  which  reside  in 
individuals.  We  know  now  that  it  is  greatly  to  the 
interest  of  society  to  discover  and  utilize  the  man, 
ordinary  in  other  respects,  who  has  the  little  gift 
of  determining  with  certainty  the  commercial  value 
of  different  sorts  of  wool  merely  by  rubbing  them 
between  his  sensitive  fingers.  We  know  that  it  is 
important  to  discover  and  educate  as  a  surgeon  the 
man  who  can  feel  more  and  more  certainly  with 
the  tip  of  his  forefinger,  in  places  out  of  sight, 
than  any  other  person  in  the  city.  We  know  that 
it  is  for  the  interest  of  society  to  discover  and  train 
every  man  who  has  the  peculiar  eye  to  recognize 
by  tints,  which  tarry  but  for  an  instant,  the  right 
temper  of  a  steel  drill.  We  know  what  a  tremen- 
dous influence  may  come  from  a  plowman  who  can 
write  verse,  or  from  a  peasant  woman  who  can 
sing,  if  only  their  natural  gifts  be  discovered  and 
trained.  We  have  lately  learned  that  from  two 
German  workmen  of  the  mechanic  class, —  father 
and  son, —  endowed  by  nature  with  an  exquisite 
eye  for  tints  and  textures,  may  come,  with  proper 
training    and    encouragement,    an    entirely   new 

279 


Undesirable  and  Desirable 

method  of  illustrating  flowers,  so  that  they  can  be 
studied  in  colored-glass  models,  both  of  natural  size 
and  of  enlarged  size,  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  It 
is  the  mobility  of  democratic  society  —  a  new  thing 
in  the  world  —  which  has  brought  home  to  us  the 
importance  of  discovering  and  training  each  least 
individual  gift  and  power.  The  greatest  natural 
gifts  reveal  themselves,  and  the  genius  is,  as  a 
rule,  independent  of  institutions  of  education.  It 
is  the  humble,  small,  inconspicuous,  but  vastly 
more  numerous,  peculiar  individual  endowments 
which  systems  of  education  should  take  infinite 
pains  to  bring  out.  Uniformity  in  schools  crushes 
and  buries  them. 

Again,  democratic  society  cannot  help  seeking 
equality  of  condition  for  all  men,  though  it  is  not 
so  foolish  as  to  believe  in  equality  of  natural  fac- 
ulties or  powers.  Now,  the  best  chance  of  securing 
an  approximate  equality  of  condition  lies  precisely 
in  this  discovery,  and  development  through  edu- 
cation, of  the  peculiar  endowments  of  each  indi- 
vidual in  the  community.  The  great  capacities  or 
powers  do  not  lead  to  happiness  and  prosperity  in 
this  world  any  more  surely  than  the  small  personal 
gifts.  A  little  gift,  well  utilized,  may  do  more  for 
the  individual  and  his  family  than  a  greater  gift. 
The  world  does  not  reward  men  in  proportion  to 
the  intellectual  quality  of  their  work.  The  village 
shopkeeper  earns  more  than  his  minister.  Many 
a  skilful  mechanic,  whose  gift  is  one  of  the  eye  or 
the  hand,  earns  more  than  the  primary-school 
teacher  or  the  newspaper  vrriter.    If  public  educa- 

280 


Uniformity  in  Schools 

tion  discovered  and  developed  the  infinite  diversity 
of  gifts  and  powers  among  the  school-children,  the 
chances  of  an  approximate  equality  of  condition 
during  the  adult  life  of  those  children  would  be 
greatly  increased.  Uniformity  in  schools  impairs 
these  chances. 

Any  one  who  has  had  much  experience  in  schools 
or  colleges  must  have  learned  that  as  the  course 
of  education  goes  on,  and  new  subjects  are  set 
before  a  class  or  group  of  pupils,  the  bright  and 
the  didl  children  not  infrequently  change  places  — 
those  that  were  accounted  bright  become  appa- 
rently duU,  and  those  that  were  accounted  dull  be- 
come, perhaps,  leaders.  The  reason  is  that  the  dull 
children  have  finally  been  brought  to  a  subject  in 
which  they  excel ;  while  the  bright  ones,  who  have 
been  exercising  a  faculty  which  they  possessed  in 
large  measure,  have  been  brought  to  a  new  field, 
to  which  their  powers  are  not  adapted.  Flexible 
and  diversified  school  programmes  will  give  all 
the  children  their  most  favorable  chance ;  stiff 
and  uniform  programmes  will  not.  No  machine, 
like  an  army,  a  ship,  or  a  factory,  can  be  a  demo- 
cratic institution;  for  it  demands  from  the  many 
implicit  obedience,  and  the  subordination  of  the 
individual  energy  to  the  movements  of  the  mass. 
So  far  as  a  school  is  a  machine  of  uniform  prod- 
uct, it  must  fail,  on  that  very  account,  to  serve  as 
it  might  the  real  interests  of  democratic  society. 

I  have  thus  far  urged  that  a  strictly  graded 
grammar  school,  a  high  school  or  academy  with  a 
single  limited  programme,  or  a  college  with  a  uni- 

281 


Undesirable  and  Desirable 

form  prescribed  curriculum,  must  suppress  indi- 
vidual differences  instead  of  developing  them,  and 
must  leave  individual  capacities  undiscovered  and 
untrained,  thus  robbing  the  individual  of  happi- 
ness and  serviceableness,  and  society  of  the  fruits 
it  might  have  enjoyed  from  the  special  endow- 
ments of  thousands  of  its  members.  But  this  is 
not  all  the  harm  done  by  undesirable  uniformity 
in  schools.  It  also  degrades  the  teacher's  function, 
and  converts  his  occupation,  which  should  be 
varied  and  inspiring,  into  a  killing  routine,  which 
runs  its  round  in  a  single  year.  I  do  not  know 
how  a  woman  teacher  of  one  class  in  a  grammar- 
school  grade,  who  goes  year  after  year  through  the 
same  prescribed  routine  with  pupils  previously 
made  as  uniform  as  possible,  and  to  be  turned  out 
as  uniform  as  possible,  can  maintain  any  intellec- 
tual freshness  or  enthusiasm  in  her  work  for  more 
than  five  or  six  years.  There  are  many  persons 
who  say  that  teachers  in  the  graded  schools  ought 
not  to  serve  more  than  ten  years,  at  the  outside, 
for  the  reason  that  they  become  dull,  formal,  and 
uninteresting;  but  if  this  be  true,  it  is  certainly 
the  fault  of  the  system  rather  than  of  the  teachers. 
If  we  go  higher  in  the  educational  hierarchy,  the 
same  objection  to  uniformity  holds.  What  can  be 
the  intellectual  fate  of  a  man  who,  year  after  year, 
is  compelled  to  read  the  same  extracts  from  the 
same  Greek  and  Latin  authors  with  boys  at  about 
the  same  stage  of  their  education,  who  present  to 
him  not  a  carefully  cultivated  diversity  of  power 
and  attainment,  but  the  greatest  similarity  which 

282 


Uniformity  in  Schools 

the  educational  mill  is  capable  of  producing? 
Many  of  us  can  recall  college  teachers  who  went 
over  the  same  text-book  with  the  Junior  class  in 
college  every  year  for  twenty  years,  making  year 
after  year  the  same  hopeless  effort  to  develop  an 
interest  in  the  subject  in  students  who  felt  no  at- 
traction toward  it,  to  drive  the  unwilling  to  make 
some  attainments  in  it,  however  slight,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  satisfy  those  who  had  some  aptitude 
for  the  subject  in  hand.  It  was  a  task  well  calcu- 
lated to  blunt  the  keenest  enthusiasm,  to  destroy 
all  pleasure  in  teaching,  and  to  dull  the  mental 
faculties  and  scholarly  aspirations  of  the  victim. 
The  main  interest  in  the  teacher's  life  is  to  be 
found  in  studying  and  developing  the  infinitely 
various  mental  and  moral  qualities  of  his  pupils. 
A  rigid,  uniform  programme,  alike  for  all  pupils, 
deprives  the  teacher  of  ready  access  to  this  most 
interesting  field  of  his  calling;  and  this  degrada- 
tion of  the  business  of  teaching  is  one  of  the  most 
mournful  results  of  undesirable  uniformity  in 
schools.  A  teacher  who  is  to  preserve  his  mental 
freshness  and  enthusiasm  must  seek  to  vary  his 
teaching  as  much  as  possible  from  year  to  year, 
and  to  cultivate  intimate  contact  with  pupils 
whose  infinite  variety  he  recognizes  and  takes 
pleasure  in  developing.  This  principle  applies  just 
as  well  to  the  primary-school  or  grammar-school 
teacher  as  it  does  to  the  university  prqfessor.  If 
it  be  observed,  the  teacher's  life  can  never  become 
monotonous,  dull,  or  depressing. 
It  is  proper  here  to  recognize  the  obvious  fact 
283 


Undesirable  and  Desirable 

that,  whereas  twenty  years  ago  the  tendency  in 
American  schools  was  toward  stricter  grading, 
simultaneous  promotions,  and  uniform  prescribed 
progi-ammes,  the  tendency  in  later  years  has  been 
toward  freedom  and  variety.  Witness  the  intro- 
duction of  English  sides,  or  courses,  into  the  old 
classical  academies,  the  subdivision  of  the  single 
high-school  course  into  three,  four,  or  even  nine 
parallel  courses,  and  the  recent  introduction  of 
heretical  options  into  the  sacred  grammar-school 
grades.  We  begin  to  hear  a  good  deal  about  loose 
grading,  and  flexible  classification,  and  frequent, 
irregular  promotions.  It  begins  to  be  recognized 
that  close  grading  and  stiff  classification  are  not 
good  things,  but  evil,  and  that  uniform  programmes, 
gradings,  and  promotion  examinations  are,  at  bot- 
tom, merely  economical  mechanical  inventions 
which  enable  a  city  or  large  town  to  get  tolerable 
school  results  from  a  large  number  of  inadequately 
educated  and  poorly  paid  teachers,  who  are  directed 
by  a  small  number  of  better  trained  and  more  ex- 
perienced principals  and  superintendents.  One  of 
the  most  encouraging  school  papers  that  has  ap- 
peared of  late  years  is  the  valuable  report  of  Dr. 
Emerson  E.  White  of  Cincinnati,  on  "  Promotions 
and  Examinations  in  Graded  Schools" — a  paper 
which  not  only  describes  evils,  but  also  suggests 
remedies. 

But  is  not  a  school  or  a  college  necessarily  a 
machine  in  some  degree?  Is  it  not  an  organiza- 
tion for  dealing  as  intelligently  and  effectively  as 
possible  with  large  numbers  of  pupils,  who  must  be 

284 


Uniformity  in  Schools 

sorted,  classified,  and  drilled  on  general  principles, 
in  masses,  and  not  as  individuals?  Is  not  a  school 
inevitably  conducted  with  fixed  hours  of  instruc- 
tion in  fixed  subjects,  with  examinations  long 
anticipated  and  prepared  for,  with  uniform  stan- 
dards, and  therefore  with  uniform  means  of  ena- 
bling large  numbers  of  pupils  simultaneously  to 
reach  those  standards? 

All  these  questions  must  be  answered  in  the 
affirmative,  but  with  careful  qualifications.  A 
school  or  college  must  be  a  machine  in  some  de- 
gree. Let  it  be  to  the  least  possible  degree.  Let 
us  avoid  to  the  utmost  cast-iron  rules,  arbitrary 
enactments,  and  uniform  prescriptions.  Of  course 
classification  is  necessary  in  every  large  school  or 
college.  Let  it  be  as  flexible  and  as  frequently 
renewed  as  possible.  Tests  of  faithfulness  and  of 
mental  condition  are  also  necessary  at  stated  peri- 
ods ;  but  these  tests  should  be  directed  to  ascer- 
taining what  the  pupils  can  do,  rather  than  what 
they  know.  There  must  be  examinations,  antici- 
pated and  unanticipated.  Let  them  always  be 
conducted  by  the  teacher,  for  the  teacher,  and  as 
helps  and  guides  in  teaching  and  in  learning.  The 
teacher  needs  to  ascertain,  from  time  to  time,  by 
such  tests,  how  his  instruction  has  been  assimilated 
by  his  class;  and  the  pupils  need  to  learn  from  them 
what  the  teacher  expects  of  his  class.  Of  uniform- 
ity in  subjects,  in  the  periods  allotted  to  each  sub- 
ject, and  in  minimum  standards,  I  propose  to  treat 
in  the  second  part  of  this  paper. 

The  best  way  to  avoid  undesirable  uniformity  in 
285 


Undesirable  and  Desirable 

schools  is  to  push  steadily  toward  the  individual- 
ization of  instruction  by  reducing  the  number  of 
pupils  assigned  to  one  teacher.  The  larger  the 
number  of  pupils  assigned  to  one  teacher,  the 
greater  the  inevitable  uniformity  of  method  and 
pace,  and  the  smaller  the  account  that  can  be  taken 
of  individual  peculiarities,  good  or  bad.  If  one 
woman  teacher  has  from  fifty  to  sixty  pupils  to  deal 
with  from  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  one 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  she  is  little  likely  to  have 
leisure  to  attend  to  the  peculiar  capacities  or  the 
peculiar  defects  of  individual  pupils,  and  a  semi- 
military,  machine  method  becomes  inevitable.  Such 
conditions  may  well  make  one  contrast  the  graded 
urban  school  of  to-day  with  the  old-fashioned  rural 
school  of  thirty  years  ago,  to  the  advantage  of  the 
latter.  In  the  New  England  village  school  of  forty 
pupils  the  college  undergraduate  then  taught  a 
dozen  classes.  The  pupils  were  at  every  stage  of 
progress,  and  the  bright  boy  or  girl  could  pass 
rapidly  from  one  class  to  another,  under  the  gui- 
dance of  a  sympathetic  young  teacher,  whose  work 
was  various,  and  whose  interest  was  keen  in  the 
progress  of  all  his  earnest  and  capable  pupils.  To 
the  individualization  of  instruction  will  be  added, 
in  time,  the  careful  study  of  each  pupil's  tempera- 
ment, constitution,  and  mental  aptitudes  and  de- 
fects, by  some  method  like  that  so  well  described 
and  practised  by  Superintendent  Frye  of  San 
Bernardino. 

2.  I  turn  now  to  consider  desirable  uniformity 
in  schools;  for  there  is  such  a  thing,  and  it  has 

286 


Uniformity  in  Schools 

great  importance  in  a  system  of  public  education 
extending  from  infancy  to  manhood  and  woman- 
hood. Although  it  may  not  be  best  for  all  chil- 
dren to  study  algebra,  geometry,  zoology,  physics, 
or  a  foreign  language,  there  is  probably  a  best 
way  of  studying  each  of  these  subjects,  which 
best  way  all  the  pupils  who  attack  any  one  of 
them  should  follow.  Moreover,  it  is  altogether 
probable  that  there  are  certain  topics  within  each 
of  these  subjects  which  all  children  who  take  up 
the  subject  at  all  should  study ;  and  the  expedient 
limits  of  each  one  of  these  topics  can  probably  be 
defined  with  a  good  degree  of  precision.  Again, 
if  it  be  worth  while  to  teach  a  given  subject  at  all, 
there  is  probably  some  ascertainable  number  of 
week-hours  which  may  best  be  devoted  to  it 
through  some  ascertainable  number  of  years.  Thus, 
a  convention  of  experts  in  teaching  physics  ought 
to  be  able  to  agree  on  the  best  topics  in  physics 
for  beginners,  the  best  mode  of  teaching  the  sub- 
ject, and  the  number  of  year-week-hours  which 
may  wisely  be  devoted  to  it ;  they  ought  to  be  able 
to  arrive  at  a  similar  agreement  for  the  second 
stage  in  the  study  of  physics,  when  the  pupils,  hav- 
ing mastered  the  elements,  are  ready  for  its  more 
difficult  problems ;  they  ought  to  be  able  to  agree 
how  many  topics  can  be  advantageously  taught  to 
a  class  of  twenty  pupils,  working  six  hours  a  week 
in  the  physical  laboratory,  and  hearing  three  lec- 
tures a  week,  in  the  first,  second,  or  third  year  of  a 
progressive  course  on  physics.  If  physics  be  one 
of  the  subjects  which  may  be  presented  at  college 

287 


Undesirable  and  Desirable 

admission  examinations  as  part  of  the  evidence  of 
the  candidate's  fitness  to  pursue  college  studies,  then 
teachers  of  physics  in  secondary  schools,  in  con- 
ference with  college  teachers  of  physics,  ought  to 
be  able  to  determine  the  reasonable  limits  of  know- 
ledge of  that  subject  for  a  candidate  for  admission 
to  college  at  the  age  of  eighteen  years.  In  like 
manner,  if  elementary  plane  geometry  be  one  of 
the  subjects  taught  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  grade, 
it  ought  to  be  possible  for  experts  to  determine 
about  how  much  geometry  could  advantageously 
be  given  to  pupils  of  that  grade,  and  in  how  many 
year- week-hours.  Some  pupils  would  do  more 
than  the  advised  amount;  undoubtedly,  others 
would  find  it  impossible  to  master  so  much;  but 
a  minimum  standard  for  a  given  grade  could  prob- 
ably be  agreed  on.  Without  desiring  that  all  pupils 
should  study  the  same  subjects,  or  should  move  at 
the  same  rate  through  any  subject,  and  making 
ample  allowance  for  the  very  various  aptitudes  for 
each  subject  in  any  given  group  of  children,  it 
must  still  be  possible,  by  careful  study  and  by  com- 
parison of  views,  to  determine  the  reasonable  limits 
up  to  which  each  subject  should  be  pursued  at  a 
given  stage  of  the  individual  pupil's  advancement. 
One  pupil  may  begin  algebra  at  ten,  another  at 
eleven,  another  at  thirteen;  but  whenever  they 
begin  algebra,  if  they  devote  a  certain  number  of 
hours  a  week  to  it  for  a  year,  a  reasonable  mini- 
mum expectation  of  attainment  within  that  first 
year  can  be  established. 
Conventions  or  agreements  covering  topics,  time- 
288 


Uniformity  in  Schools 

allotment,  method,  and  appropriate  tests  for  each 
of  the  subjects  which  enter  into  the  grammar- 
school  programme,  and  into  the  high-school  and 
academy  programme,  are  very  desirable,  in  order  to 
prevent  waste  of  force  and  time  at  each  of  these 
levels  of  the  system  of  national  instruction.  The 
grammar-school  programme  is  the  foundation  of  the 
high-school  programme,  and  the  high-school  and 
academy  programmes  are  the  foundation  of  the  col- 
lege courses.  Now,  although  it  is  wholly  unneces- 
sary that  all  the  pupils  who  go  from  the  grammar 
schools  to  the  high  schools  in  any  year  should 
have  studied  the  same  subjects,  it  is  desirable  that 
all  high  schools  should  be  able  to  count  on  all 
grammar  schools  having  taught  a  given  subject  in 
a  given  way,  with  a  range  and  scope  agreed  on, 
and  up  to  a  minimum  standard  of  acquired  power 
in  the  subject.  So,  at  the  close  of  the  high-school 
period,  it  is  neither  necessary  nor  desirable  that 
all  candidates  for  admission  to  colleges  should  have 
pursued  the  same  subjects ;  but  it  is  desirable  that 
their  attainments  in  those  subjects  which  they  have 
pursued  should  represent  a  tolerably  uniform  num- 
ber of  year-week-hours,  and  should  normally  cover 
a  definite  number  of  selected  topics  in  each  subject 
studied  in  an  agreed-on  method.  This  is  by  no 
means  the  case  at  present.  For  example.  Harvard 
and  Yale  universities  conduct  admission  exami- 
nations at  a  large  number  of  American  cities  scat- 
tered over  the  country ;  but  there  are  curious  little 
diversities  within  the  same  subjects  in  the  require- 
ments of  these  two  universities.  Thus,  they  both 
i»  289 


Undesirable  and  Desirable 

require  Latin  and  algebra  for  admission;  but  every 
schoolmaster  who  presents  candidates  at  both  uni- 
versities knows  that  the  Yale  requirements  differ 
from  the  Harvard  requirements,  both  in  Latin  and 
in  algebra.  The  Association  of  Colleges  in  New 
England  has  done  something  to  diminish  the  ab- 
surd diversities  within  the  same  subjects  in  the  ad- 
mission requirements  of  the  twenty  colleges  of 
New  England;  but  there  stiR  remain  many  un- 
meaning and  trivial  diversities  of  a  very  vexatious 
character.  The  diversities  within  the  same  sub- 
jects which  the  schools  and  colleges  of  the  country 
at  large  exhibit  are,  of  course,  much  more  serious 
and  numerous. 

Now,  the  number  of  subjects  which  enter  into 
grammar-school,  high-school,  and  academy  pro- 
grammes, though  somewhat  formidable  when  we  im- 
agine the  attempt  made  to  define  the  proper  limits 
of  each  for  school  purposes,  is  still  distinctly  small. 
Considering  the  immense  expansion  of  knowledge 
within  this  century,  it  is  remarkable  how  few  sub- 
jects are  used  in  a  substantial  way  for  primary  and 
secondary  education.  The  requirements  for  admis- 
sion to  Harvard  College  are  more  varied  than 
those  of  any  other  institution,  in  the  sense  that  the 
number  of  options  permitted  to  candidates  is  larger 
than  in  any  other  institution.  Yet  the  number  of 
separate  subjects  is  only  sixteen.  They  are :  Eng- 
lish ;  G-reek,  elementary  and  advanced ;  Latin,  ele- 
mentary and  advanced ;  G-erman,  elementary  and 
advanced ;  French,  elementary  and  advanced ;  his- 
tory of  Greece  and  Eome;  history  of  the  United 

290 


Uniformity  in  Schools 

States  and  of  England;  algebra,  elementary  and 
advanced;  plane  and  solid  geometry;  trigonom- 
etry ;  the  elements  of  analytic  geometry ;  astron- 
omy; physics,  elementary  and  advanced;  and 
chemistry. 

The  options  among  these  subjects  are  so  wide 
that  at  every  annual  examination  for  admission 
from  seventy  to  ninety  different  combinations  of 
subjects  are  presented,  and  hundreds  of  combina- 
tions are  possible ;  yet  the  examinations  are  con- 
ducted with  perfect  administrative  ease,  and  with 
less  labor  and  trouble  on  the  part  of  the  examiners 
than  if  one  rigid  set  of  sixteen  examinations  were 
prescribed  for  all  candidates. 

The  Harvard  requirements  include  at  least  two 
advanced  subjects,  that  is,  two  subjects  to  which 
the  candidates  must  have  given  several  years  of 
study,  and  which  have,  therefore,  been  pursued  be- 
yond the  elements.  In  seeking  a  just  variety  of 
gates  of  admission  to  the  higher  education,  some 
colleges  and  universities  have  given  entrance  to 
persons  who  present  only  a  considerable  variety  of 
elementary  subjects,  without  any  advanced  sub- 
jects ;  but  such  gates  will  always  remain  inferior 
to  the  traditional  door  of  Latin,  Greek,  and  mathe- 
matics, for  the  simple  reason  that  they  include  no 
prolonged  or  advanced  study  of  any  one  subject. 
The  main  reason  why  the  ordinary  programme  of  a 
so-called  preparatory  school  yields  a  better  training 
than  the  ordinary  programme  of  a  high  school  is  that 
the  pupil's  attention  is  more  concentrated,  that  the 
number  of  subjects  is  fewer,  and  that  each  subject 

291 


Undesirable  and  Desirable 

is  carried  further.  It  has  long  been  supposed  that 
the  superiority  of  the  preparatory  schools  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  Latin  and  Greek  were  there  stud- 
ied ;  but  my  conviction  is  that  their  superiority  is 
due  chiefly  to  the  concentration  of  work  on  a  few 
subjects,  and  that  many  other  subjects,  if  given 
as  large  a  share  of  the  pupil's  time  as  the  Classics 
have  had,  would  yield  as  good  a  result.  However 
that  may  be,  we  may  be  sure  that  to  study  botany, 
zoology,  geology,  physiology,  physics,  chemistry, 
and  astronomy,  all  taken  together,  in  the  scientific 
course  of  a  high  school  for  only  the  same  time  de- 
voted to  the  single  subject  of  Greek  in  the  classical 
course  will  not  yield  so  valuable  a  training  as  to 
study  the  Q-reek.  We  may  be  sure  that  to  study 
French  two  years  and  German  one  year  three  times 
a  week  will  not  yield  so  good  a  linguistic  training 
as  to  study  either  language  three  years  three  times 
a  week.  In  order  to  get  good  discipline  out  of  any 
subject  at  the  age  of  fourteen  to  eighteen,  it  must 
be  pursued  beyond  its  mere  elements ;  there  must 
be  prolonged  and  advanced  study  of  it. 

The  admission  requirements  at  Michigan  and 
Cornell  universities  illustrate,  in  another  way  from 
that  which  obtains  at  Harvard,  variety  for  the  in- 
dividual candidate,  procured  through  a  few  different 
combinations  of  a  moderate  number  of  subjects. 
Thus,  at  Cornell  University  there  are  four  distinct 
groups  of  admission  requirements,  the  first  and 
most  difficult  composed  of  eleven  subjects,  the  sec- 
ond of  twelve,  the  third  of  eight,  and  the  fourth  and 
easiest  composed  of  ten  subjects.    To  make  these 

29  a 


Uniformity  in  Schools 

four  groups  only  fifteen  separate  subjects  are 
used.  At  the  University  of  Michigan  there  are 
five  distinct  groups  of  admission  requirements, 
containing  from  nine  to  thirteen  subjects  each,  but 
using  twenty-one  separate  subjects  in  all.  The 
reason  for  the  larger  number  of  separate  subjects 
at  Michigan  is  this:  to  keep  nearer  the  high 
schools,  Michigan  permits  candidates  to  present, 
among  other  things,  a  selection  from  seven  scraps 
of  subjects,  no  one  of  which  is  supposed  to  be  pur- 
sued for  more  than  half  a  year. 

Now,  it  is  not  desirable  that  all  the  American 
colleges  should  have  the  same  requirements  for 
admission,  or  that  any  college  should  have  but  a 
single  set  of  requirements;  but  it  would  greatly 
facilitate  the  work  of  secondary  schools  if  all  col- 
leges and  universities  should  agree  on  the  limits 
of  each  subject  which  enters  into  their  require- 
ments for  admission,  on  the  time  to  be  devoted  to 
it  at  school,  the  proper  method  of  teaching  it,  and 
the  fairest  way  of  testing  the  student's  knowledge 
of  it.  So  much  uniformity  is  desirable,  and  it  is 
by  no  means  unattainable.  If  four  or  five  of  the 
leading  universities,  such  as  Harvard,  Yale,  Cor- 
nell, Michigan,  and  California,  should  enter  into 
an  agreement  on  this  subject,  the  work  of  the  im- 
portant secondary  schools  would,  in  all  probability, 
be  gradually  conformed  to  the  recommendations 
of  the  universities.  At  present  the  subjects  which 
enter  into  the  ordinary  grammar-school  grades  are 
few  in  number,  so  that  for  these  grades  an  agree- 
ment could  be  reached  with  more  ease  than  for 
'^*  293 


Undesirable  and  Desirable 

high  schools ;  but  the  advantages  to  be  derived  by- 
high  schools  and  academies  from  an  agreement  for 
grammar  schools,  covering  the  points  above  men- 
tioned, would  be  great — particularly  by  academies, 
because  they  receive  pupils  from  many  widely 
separated  communities. 

The  great  field,  however,  for  the  profitable  appli- 
cation of  the  doctrine  of  uniformity  by  subject  is 
public  secondary  education.  The  number  of  sub- 
jects which  enter  into  the  four  years'  course  of 
many  high  schools  in  this  country  is  large  in  com- 
parison with  the  number  used  in  grammar  schools; 
but  this  four  years'  course  is  very  commonly  di- 
vided into  three  sections, —  classical,  Latin,  and 
scientific, —  within  which  a  considerable  number 
of  options  occur,  so  that  no  individual  student  is 
compelled  to  study  all  the  subjects  which  enter 
into  the  course  or  courses.  The  following  list, 
which  is  made  up  from  the  programmes  of  a  consid- 
erable number  of  high  schools  situated  in  different 
parts  of  the  country,  is  believed  to  contain  all  the 
subjects  from  which  high-school  programmes  are 
now  commonly  made  up : 

1.  Enghsh —  5.  German. 

Including    both    literatiire      g.  Latin. 

and  composition,  and  there-      n    Q.j.gg]f 

fore    comprehending     the      o     a    -i-i.       i.- 
,        4.     *  u  4.    .  8.  Arithmetic. 

elements  of  rhetoric. 

2.  History-  ^'  Algebra. 

Ancient,    medieeval,  and   10.  Plane  geometry, 

modem.  11.  SoUd  geometry. 

3.  Civil  government.  12.  Trigonometry. 

4.  French.  13.  Analytic  geometry. 

294 


Uniformity  in  Schools 

14.  Physical  geography.         23.  Moral  philosophy. 

15.  Geology.  24.  International  law. 

16.  Botany,  25.  Political  economy. 

17.  Zoology.  26.  Science  of  education. 

18.  Physiology.  27.  Music. 

19.  Physics.  28.  Drawing. 

20.  Chemistry.  29.  Stenography. 

21.  Astronomy.  30.  Bookkeeping. 

22.  Psychology. 

After  all,  these  subjects  are  but  thirty  in  num- 
ber, and  it  ought  not  to  be  beyond  human  wisdom 
to  lay  down  the  approximate  limits  of  each  subject 
for  the  years  between  fourteen  and  eighteen,  the 
right  method  of  study  in  each  subject,  and  the 
proper  number  of  year-week-hours  to  be  devoted 
to  each.  It  does  not  seem  impossible  that  a  board 
of  experts  should  agree  that  a  few  of  these  sub- 
jects are  desirable  for  all  pupils,  but  that  the  great 
majority  of  them  should  be  optional  subjects. 
Perhaps  there  are  in  the  list  some  subjects  which 
such  a  board  would  agree  ought  not  to  be  included 
at  all  in  a  course  intended  to  cover  the  years  from 
fourteen  to  eighteen,  unless,  indeed,  as  reading 
matter. 

In  the  whole  course  of  organized  education, 
from  five  years  of  age  to  twenty-five,  the  public 
high  school  presents  the  greatest  difficulty  for  the 
attainment  of  uniformity  by  subject.  Since  the 
adoption  of  the  elective  system  by  all  the  prin- 
cipal colleges,  the  variety  of  subjects  attempted  in 
the  high  school  by  the  individual  pupil  is  greater 
than    in  any  other  institution,  considering    the 

295 


Undesirable  and  Desirable 

shortness  of  the  course ;  and  from  necessity  most 
of  the  subjects  are  treated  only  in  their  barest  ele- 
ments. The  old-fashioned  curriculum  in  the  Amer- 
ican colleges  was  just  such  another  exaggerated 
group  of  elementary  subjects;  but  that  was  par- 
tially redeemed  by  the  fact  that  Latin,  Greek,  and 
mathematics  had  already  been  studied  for  several 
years  by  students  admitted  to  college,  and  that 
these  three  subjects  were  insisted  on  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  college  curriculum. 

There  is  much  to  be  said  in  favor  of  the  growing 
practice  of  organizing  a  city  school  system  in 
twelve  grades,  without  dividing  these  grades  into 
groups  called  primary,  grammar,  and  high.  Among 
other  advantages  gained,  uniformity  by  subject 
and  variety  for  the  individual  pupil  are  both  facili- 
tated by  this  arrangement.  It  makes  it  easier  to 
provide  that  the  twelve  grades  may  be  finished  in 
nine,  ten,  eleven,  or  twelve  years.  There  is  no  real 
division  corresponding  to  these  three  traditional 
groups,  and  the  nomenclature  which  implies  a  divi- 
sion probably  has  some  effect  to  diminish  the  pro- 
portion of  pupUs  proceeding  to  the  upper  grades. 

The  introduction  of  new  subjects  into  the  gram- 
mar-school course — already  begun  in  many  places 
with  vigor  and  prompt  success  —  is  going  to  affect 
very  favorably  the  high-school  programmes,  and  will 
bring  us  perceptibly  nearer  to  the  realization  of 
the  only  truly  democratic  school  principle  —  every 
grade  to  provide  the  best  possible  power-training 
for  every  pupil  at  his  stage  of  progress,  no  matter 
at  what  age  his  education  is  to  end.    More  infor- 

296 


Uniformity  in  Schools 

mation  can  never  compensate,  at  any  age,  for  less 
power.  To  give  children  whose  training  is  to  be 
short  a  poorer  education  for  power,  just  because 
their  years  in  school  are  to  be  few,  is  surely  to 
add  injury  to  misfortune.  The  enrichment  of  the 
grammar-school  grades  means  options  for  the  indi- 
vidual pupil,  and  probably  means  also  a  differen- 
tiation among  the  grammar  schools  of  the  same 
town  or  city.  Either  of  these  improvements  will 
reduce  undesirable  uniformity  and  promote  the 
advent  of  the  desirable. 

Our  governmental  institutions  supply  no  broad 
authoritative  supervision  of  education.  The  na- 
tional government  has  no  function  of  that  sort. 
Some  of  the  newer  States  have  a  State  superin- 
tendent and  county  superintendents ;  but  the  au- 
thority of  these  officers  is  often  limited,  and  their 
tenure  brief  and  uncertain.  Many  of  the  older 
States  have  no  such  officers.  In  the  main,  the 
administration  of  education  is  local,  each  town  or 
city  being  independent  as  regards  school  adminis- 
tration. Accordingly,  the  best  hope  of  exerting  an 
influence  throughout  the  nation  over  school  and 
college  programmes  is  through  the  voluntary  action 
of  a  few  experts  in  each  subject  of  instruction, 
who  can  command  the  cooperation  of  institutions 
which  have  obtained  an  acknowledged  preemi- 
nence, and  can  act  under  the  sanction  of  an  asso- 
ciation having  a  national  organization. 

As  encouragements  in  an  undertaking  which 
looks  arduous,  I  will  mention  four  interesting  in- 
stances of  considerable  changes   brought   about 

297 


Undesirable  and  Desirable 

in  the  United  States  by  the  voluntary  coopera- 
tion of  a  few  competent  persons  and  corpora- 
tions —  one  in  practical  affairs,  and  three  in  educa- 
tional. The  change  in  practical  affairs  was  the 
adoption  of  the  "  standard  ^  time  across  the  conti- 
nent. This  improvement  was  brought  about  by 
some  of  the  principal  railroads,  acting  on  the  ad- 
vice of  a  few  astronomers.  It  was  the  work  of  a 
small  number  of  strong  corporations,  and  of  a  few 
experts ;  yet  it  affected  the  daily  lives  of  almost 
all  the  people  of  the  United  States,  and  in  those 
sections  where  the  standard  and  the  local  time 
differ  by  nearly  or  quite  half  an  hour  the  popula- 
tion was  distinctly  inconvenienced  by  the  change. 

The  first  of  the  educational  changes  to  which  I 
refer  was  the  early  replacement  of  Euclid  in  Amer- 
ican schools  and  colleges  by  much  simpler  geome- 
tries translated  from  the  French.  This  great 
improvement  was  achieved  by  a  few  mathematical 
teachers  in  leading  institutions.  In  England  Eu- 
clid was  retained  for  two  generations  after  it  had 
practically  ceased  to  be  used  in  this  country. 

A  second  interesting  result  of  effective  leader- 
ship in  a  few  American  colleges  and  schools  is  to 
be  seen  in  the  adoption  of  the  so-called  Roman 
pronunciation  of  Latin,  which,  being  recommended 
by  two  or  three  professors  of  Latin  in  leading  in- 
stitutions, spread  rapidly  over  the  whole  United 
States,  and  is  now  the  accepted  pronunciation  in 
most  schools  and  colleges.  In  sharp  contrast  to 
this  result  is  the  actual  state  of  things  in  England, 
where  the  professors  of  Latin  at  Oxford  and  Cam- 

298 


Uniformity  in  Schools 

bridge  united  in  recommending  the  adoption  of  the 
new  pronunciation  more  than  twenty  years  ago, 
but  their  recommendation  has  as  yet  had  scarcely 
any  effect  in  English  schools  and  colleges. 

The  third  educational  change  which  has  pro- 
ceeded from  a  few  centers  in  this  country,  and  yet 
has  been  rapidly  and  widely  adopted,  is  the  substi- 
tution of  the  laboratory  method  for  the  book 
method  in  teaching  natural  science.  This  is  the 
most  important  improvement  in  educational  meth- 
ods during  the  past  twenty  years;  for  it  gives 
science,  for  the  first  time,  a  fair  chance  in  the 
competition  among  subjects  as  discipline.  It 
yields  the  real  training  which  science  is  adapted 
to  furnish,  whereas  the  book  method  yielded  no- 
thing characteristic  of  science,  and  for  memory 
training,  science,  so  studied,  was  inferior  to  history, 
grammar,  and  literature. 

I  urge,  then,  that  uniformity  in  schools  is  undesir- 
able so  far  as  it  means  uniform  subjects,  gait,  and 
pace  for  individuals ;  that  it  is  desirable  so  far  as 
it  means  selection  of  all  the  subjects  which  may 
wisely  be  included  in  the  successive  grades,  either 
for  all  pupils  or  for  some  pupils,  definition  of 
those  subjects,  determination  of  the  average  or 
ordinary  time  to  be  devoted  to  each  subject,  and 
prescription  of  the  methods  of  instruction  appro- 
priate to  each.  And,  finally,  I  believe  that  the 
most  hopeful  way  of  bringing  about  that  desirable 
uniformity  is  through  recommendations  as  to  se- 
lection, definition,  time-allotment,  and  method, 
which  proceed  from  judicious  experts  acting  under 

299 


Uniformify  in  Schools 

the  sanction  of  a  national  association  like  this,  to 
be  soon  adopted  provisionally  by  a  few  leading 
cities  and  institutions,  and  to  be  constantly  im- 
proved by  cooperative  experimentation  in  many 
institutions  and  school  systems,  year  after  year,  in 
all  parts  of  the  country. 


300 


THE  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL  OF  THE 
FUTURE. 

Massachusetts  State  Teachers'  Association,  December,  1893 


THE  GRAMMAR  SCHOOL  OF  THE 
FUTURE 


IN  the  first  place,  we  must  think  of  the  mechani- 
cal conditions  of  the  grammar  school  of  the  fu- 
ture. There  are  some  large  improvements  for 
which  we  hope ;  we  hope  for  more  fresh  air  within 
the  buildings ;  for  moderate  temperature  and 
abundance  of  light.  These  are  necessary  condi- 
tions for  healthful  mental  activity :  good  air,  good 
light,  and,  every  hour  or  two,  out-of-door  exercise. 
I  believe  the  grammar  school  of  the  future  will 
have  about  it  a  large  piece  of  open  ground.  Even 
in  our  densest  cities  this  is  entirely  a  question  of 
dollars  and  cents;  and  I  believe  that  when  the 
American  people  clearly  perceive  that  a  certain 
expenditure  is  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  the 
great  mass  of  American  children,  they  will  find  a 
way  to  make  that  expenditure.  Therefore  I  be- 
lieve that  there  will  be  open  ground  about  the 
grammar  school  of  the  future,  whether  in  the  city 
or  the  country. 
And  now  for  another  grammar-school  improve- 

303 


The  Grammar  School  of  the  Future 

ment  that  needs  more  explanation.  When  the 
teacher  and  children  have  gone  out  of  the  building, 
there  is  generally  nothing  left  in  it  except  the  fur- 
naces and  the  furniture  —  no  valuable  apparatus, 
no  considerable  number  of  books,  and  no  collec- 
tions. Here,  I  think,  we  come  upon  a  great  differ- 
ence between  the  actual  grammar  school  and  the 
grammar  school  that  is  to  be.  It  is  only  of  late 
years  that  we  have  come  to  perceive  that  nothing, 
absolutely  nothing,  can  be  well  taught  without 
good  appliances.  I  believe  that  the  grammar 
school  of  the  future  is  to  have  a  large  assortment 
of  apparatus  of  various  kinds.  To  begin  with,  it 
will  have  books.  We  are  getting  over  the  opinion 
that  children  can  learn,  or  teachers  teach,  from 
one  small  text-book.  We  realize  that  every  sub- 
ject needs  to  be  illustrated,  for  both  teacher  and 
pupil,  by  many  and  various  books.  We  already 
know  this  of  literature.  But  can  history  be  taught 
successfully  to  children  from  six  to  fourteen  years 
of  age  without  an  illustrative  library  of  books? 
Mr.  Morss  has  just  shown  us  how  the  elementary 
teaching  of  natural  history  can  be  done  in  the 
fields ;  but  long  before  a  child  leaves  the  grammar 
school  he  should  have  access  to  a  considerable 
number  of  books  on  natural  history ;  not  to  com- 
mit to  memory, —  far  from  it, —  but  to  delight  him- 
self with  them.  There  is  no  subject  that  does  not 
require  its  apparatus  for  teaching.  To  teach  chem- 
istry with  good  results  in  our  high  schools  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  simple  apparatus  is  necessary. 
The  same  is  true  of  physics.    We  have  heard  here, 

304 


The  Grammar  School  of  the  Future 

this  afternoon,  that  simple  apparatus  is  necessary 
for  even  so  highly  theoretical  a  science  as  geometry. 
It  must  be  first  taught  by  the  concrete  method,  and 
the  pupils  will  need  instruments  for  measuring 
and  tools  for  drawing.  What  will  the  grammar 
school  of  the  future  contain  for  the  teaching  of 
geography  —  that  subject  which  holds  within  its 
comprehensive  circle  all  other  natural-history  sub- 
jects, through  which  children  should  be  introduced 
to  botany,  geology,  and  meteorology,  and  without 
which  history  cannot  be  taught  with  satisfaction  — 
the  subject  that  must  be  brought  home  to  the 
child's  mind  in  order  that  he  may  comprehend 
what  we  mean  by  "  our  country  "  ?  It  is  extraor- 
dinary what  interest  and  training-power  are  im- 
parted to  geography  simply  by  the  addition  of 
one  means  of  illustration,  namely,  photographs  of 
scenery.  There  is  no  point  in  reference  to  the 
formation  of  plains  and  plateaus,  of  mountains  and 
valleys,  of  lakes  and  rivers,  which  cannot  be  beau- 
tifully illustrated  by  photographs.  I  say,  there- 
fore, that  the  grammar  school  of  the  future  will 
have  within  its  walls  a  large  assortment  of  models, 
charts,  maps,  globes,  and  photographs  for  the  teach- 
ing of  geography.  It  will  also  have  collections  of 
typical  objects  in  the  various  branches  of  natural 
history.  All  subjects  need  to  be  dealt  with  con- 
cretely for  the  child,  first  by  actual  objects,  then 
by  representations  and  descriptions  of  objects.  In 
order  to  do  this,  we  need  in  all  subjects  the  means 
of  illustration.  I  believe,  therefore,  that  the  gram- 
mar school  of  the  future  will  be  a  rich  museum  — 

20  305 


The  Grammar  School  of  the  Future 

by  no  means  empty  when  its  pupils  and  teachers 
leave  it. 

This,  again,  means  the  expenditure  of  money. 
And  how  can  we  hope  to  acquire  for  the  grammar 
school  these  costly  materials!  Does  not  the 
grammar  school  cost  more  now  than  the  public  is 
willing  to  pay  ?  Is  not  the  expense  of  new  appli- 
ances a  constant  obstacle  %  Let  me  point  out,  from 
the  experience  of  many  years  in  the  conduct  of  a 
university, —  and  of  a  university  which  has  never 
been  anything  but  poor  in  comparison  with  what 
it  was  seeking  to  accomplish, —  that  all  these  things 
can  be  gradually  added  with  a  moderate  annual 
expenditure,  and  that  the  tendency  of  recent  years 
is  to  decrease  their  cost.  Physical  apparatus,  for 
example,  does  not  cost  now  more  than  one  fifth  of 
its  cost  ten  years  ago. 

I  come  now  to  another  matter,  which  may  be 
said  in  a  certain  sense  to  be  mechanical,  but  which 
is  much  more  than  that.  If  we  go  into  any  room 
in  a  highly  graded  grammar  school  in  any  Ameri- 
can city,  we  are  apt  to  find  from  fifty  to  sixty 
children  under  the  charge  of  a  single  teacher —  ordi- 
narily a  young  girl  whose  experience  in  teaching 
has  been  short  and  will  be  short.  Now,  I  have 
been  looking  for  a  good  many  years  at  university 
teaching  —  the  teaching  of  persons  much  older  than 
grammar-school  children,  even  twice  the  age  of 
grammar-school  children,  and  in  a  great  variety 
of  subjects  —  in  all  the  languages  and  sciences,  and 
in  history,  philosophy,  law,  medicine,  and  divinity ; 

306 


The  Grammar  School  of  the  Future 

but  never  have  I  seen  a  university  teacher  trying 
to  deal  five  hours  a  day  with  as  many  pupils  as 
are  put  before  every  young  grammar-school  teacher 
in  the  city  of  Boston,  for  example.  And  these 
teachers  in  the  University,  who  would  never  think 
of  tackling  such  a  job  as  confronts  the  grammar- 
school  teacher,  are  men  of  high  training,  large  ex- 
perience, and  great  earnestness.  It  is  obvious  that 
the  young  woman  with  fifty  to  sixty  pupils  before 
her  is  attempting  what  no  mortal  can  perform  — 
particularly  if  we  suppose  the  teaching  in  the 
grammar  school  is  going  to  be  of  the  kind  which 
all  the  speakers  here  to-day  have  been  describing 
and  pointing  out  as  desirable.  I  suppose  it  is 
practicable  for  one  young  woman  to  hear  the 
lessons  out  of  one  book  of  all  the  fifty  children 
before  her  during  the  hours  of  the  grammar-school 
session,  and  keep  a  certain  amount  of  watch  over 
the  children  who  are  not  reciting  their  lessons, 
provided  the  grading  is  almost  perfect,  and  we  are 
going  to  be  satisfied  with  "  uniform  "  results.  But 
the  new  teaching  is  of  quite  a  different  character. 
It  requires  alertness,  vitality,  and  sympathetic  en- 
thusiasm. It  is  exhausting.  Virtue  goes  out  of  the 
teacher  at  every  moment.  What  is  the  possible 
remedy  ?  To  double  the  number  of  teachers  would 
not  be  too  much ;  for  twenty-five  or  thirty  pupils 
are  quite  enough  for  one  teacher  to  grapple  with. 
The  individual  requires  teaching  in  these  days, 
and  no  teaching  is  good  which  does  not  pay  atten- 
tion to  the  individual.    The  interest  of  the  pupil 

307 


The  Grammar  School  of  the  Future 

is  to  be  developed.  We  are  coming  to  accept  the 
doctrine  that  no  teaching  is  good  which  does  not 
awaken  interest  in  the  pupil. 

But  we  must  admit  that  to  double  the  number  of 
teachers  is  not  a  practical  aim,  at  present,  in  most 
grammar-school  systems,  whether  in  the  city  or 
in  the  country.  We  cannot  hope  for  that  desirable 
result  within  a  generation.  We  ask,  therefore,  is 
there  no  other  possible  solution  of  this  serious  diffi- 
culty I  Two  suggestions  may,  I  think,  be  made  on 
this  subject,  which  I  derive  in  both  instances  from 
experience  at  the  University.  I  observe  that  the 
same  suggestions  might  be  made  from  the  other 
end  of  the  educational  system,  the  kindergarten. 

At  Harvard  University  we  recognize  that  every 
individual  pupil  should  be  looked  after,  his  wants 
provided  for,  his  hopes  and  ambitions  borne  in  mind. 
The  professor  can  set  before  a  whole  class  in  an 
hour  an  outline  of  a  course  of  study  that  will  oc- 
cupy them  a  month.  He  can  indicate  the  direc- 
tion of  their  daily  work.  He  can  fill  them,  if  he 
has  it  in  him,  with  the  enthusiasm  which  is  to 
carry  them  on  for  a  month.  That  much  of  personal 
direction  can  be  given  to  a  large  number  by  a  sin- 
gle teacher.  But  when  it  comes  to  supervision  of 
the  daily  work  of  a  large  number  of  students,  the 
single  professor  is  altogether  inadequate.  At  the 
University  we  provide  assistants.  We  began  this 
in  the  laboratories  —  the  old-fashioned  laboratories 
for  physics  and  chemistry.  We  have  now  extended 
it  to  all  departments.  This  method  works  well 
throughout  the  University.    These  assistants  are 

308 


The  Grammar  School  of  the  Future 

young  graduates  who  have  been  through  these 
very  courses,  generally  under  the  guidance  of  the 
same  professor  whom  they  assist.  They  meet  the 
principal  teacher  weekly  or  daily,  and  get  their 
entire  guidance  from  him.  I  describe  this  univer- 
sity method  because  I  think  it  is  applicable  to  the 
entire  school  system,  though  perhaps  it  would  not 
work  well  imder  the  present  system  of  appointing 
school-teachers ;  for  there  must  necessarily  be  very 
close  cooperation  and  sympathy  between  the  prin- 
cipal teacher  and  his  assistants.  I  am  not  pre- 
pared to  say  that  the  selection  of  the  assistants  by 
any  one  except  the  leading  teacher  would  work 
well.    That  is  the  practice  at  the  University. 

One  other  suggestion  may  be  made  to  meet  the 
immense  difficulty  which  we  have  under  consid- 
eration. It  is  that  the  principal  teachers  in  any 
urban  school  system,  and  superintendents  in  any 
school  system,  urban  or  rural,  should  take  the  part 
of  the  professor  leading  a  class.  I  believe  that  the 
schools  need  many  more  highly  trained  and  expe- 
rienced teachers  than  they  now  have,  and  that 
these  principal  teachers  can  work  advantageously 
in  many  schools  on  the  departmental  plan.  "We 
see  the  beginnings  of  this  method  in  the  practice 
of  employing  special  teachers  in  special  subjects, 
and  directors  for  departments  of  instruction.  This 
system  would  involve  more  men  teachers  than  are 
at  present  employed. 

The  conferences  on  secondary  education  which 
met  last  December  recommended  a  great  extension 
of  the  subjects  which  are  used  in  the  grammar 
20*  309 


The  Grammar  School  of  the  Future 

school  of  to-day,  and  the  correlation  of  those  sub- 
jects in  teaching,  so  that  all  teachers  may  take  an 
interest  in  several  subjects.  This  recommendation 
would  bring  into  the  grammar  school  many  sub- 
jects now  belonging  to  the  high  school ;  and  this 
change  would  cause  the  greatest  possible  improve- 
ment in  the  grammar  school  of  the  future.  It 
would  make  it  a  good  school  for  pupils  of  all  des- 
tinations, and  not,  as  now,  only  a  school  for  pupils 
whose  destination  is  of  the  humblest.  Yet  it  is 
now  the  only  school  for  ninety-five  per  cent,  of 
American  children.  In  a  democracy  the  public 
schools  should  enable  any  child  to  get  the  best 
training  possible  up  to  any  year,  not  for  the  hum- 
blest destinations  only,  but  for  aU  destinations. 
This  is  the  true  view  of  the  grammar  school.  That  is 
the  true  distinction  between  the  American  grammar 
school  as  it  should  be,  and  every  European  popular 
school  that  exists.  European  class  schools  are 
unfit  for  imitation  in  this  country,  simply  because 
they  are  class  schools,  while  what  we  want  is  a 
school  for  the  mass. 

There  are  various  methods  of  rescue  or  escape 
from  the  grammar  schools  now  in  use  in  the  United 
States.  Notably,  there  is  one  in  Boston,  through 
early  admission  to  the  Latin  School  and  the  high 
schools.  But  the  American  grammar  school  of  the 
future  will  make  that  the  rule  which  is  now  the 
exception  —  every  child  without  special  favor  to 
get  at  the  right  subject  at  the  right  age,  and  to 
pursue  it  just  as  far  and  as  fast  as  he  is  able 
to  travel.    There  must  be  a  possibility  of  progress 

310 


The  Grammar  School  of  the  Future 

at  different  rates,  and  an  abandonment  of  uni- 
formity as  a  school  aim. 

I  look,  therefore,  in  the  grammar  school  of  the 
future  for  a  departure  in  one  important  respect 
from  the  principles  which  have  dominated  the 
American  grammar  school  for  a  generation  past. 
I  look  for  this  improvement  because  I  believe  that 
the  American  people  are  disposed  to  apply  in 
practice,  at  whatever  cost,  principles  which  they 
believe  to  promote  equality  of  opportunities  for 
children  of  equal  capacities.  I  believe  that  the 
American  people  accept,  as  one  just  definition  of 
democracy,  Napoleon's  phrase,  "  Every  career  open 
to  talent";  and  I  believe  that  this  sajdng  will 
fairly  characterize  the  grammar  school  of  the 
future. 


jn 


THE  UNITY  OF  EDUCATIONAL 
REFORM 

"Educational  Review,"  October,  1894 


THE  UNITY  OF  EDUCATIONAL 
REFORM' 


THE  Eeport  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  has  now 
been  in  the  hands  of  the  teachers  of  the  coun- 
try for  about  six  months,  so  that  there  has  been 
time  to  formulate  and  publish  some  criticisms  and 
objections.  I  propose  to  comment  in  this  address 
on  one  criticism  or  objection  which,  in  various  forms 
and  by  several  different  persons,  has  been  brought 
before  the  educational  public.  Whenever  I  speak 
of  the  Report  I  intend  to  include  the  reports  of  the 
conferences  as  well  as  the  proper  report  of  the 
Committee  of  Ten ;  for  the  chief  value  of  the  total 
report  lies  in  the  conference  reports. 

The  objection  to  the  Report  which  I  shall  discuss 
is  contained  in  the  question,  "What  do  college 
men  know  about  schools  ? "  Those  who  urge  this 
objection  say,  in  substance :  "  More  than  half  the 
members  of  the  conferences  were  at  the  moment 
in  the  service  of  colleges  and  universities,  and  the 

1  Before  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction  at  Bethlehem,  New 
Hampshire,  July  11,  1894. 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

same  was  true  of  the  Committee  of  Ten.  The  wise 
management  of  schools  for  children  from  six  to 
eighteen  years  of  age  is  a  different  business  from 
the  wise  management  of  colleges  and  universities. 
Not  only  is  the  age  of  the  pupils  different,  but  their 
mode  of  life  and  the  discipline  they  need  are  also 
different.  The  mental  capacity  of  young  children 
is  low,  compared  with  that  of  college  students,  their 
wills  are  weaker,  and  their  moral  qualities  unde- 
veloped. How  can  men  who  teach  and  govern 
young  people  of  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  years 
of  age  know  anything  about  schools  for  children  ? 
Let  them  attend  to  the  higher  education,  and  not 
attempt  to  teach  experts  in  elementary  and  secon- 
dary education  how  to  conduct  their  very  different 
business.  That  a  man  has  succeeded  in  conducting 
a  college  or  a  university  makes  it  altogether  proba- 
ble that  his  advice  will  be  worthless  as  to  the  best 
mode  of  conducting  a  school,  or  a  system  of  schools. 
We  school  superintendents  and  principals  have  to 
handle  masses  of  average  material;  your  college 
and  university  teacher  has  only  a  small  number  of 
exceptional  individuals  to  deal  with." 

To  meet  this  objection,  I  wish  to  affirm  and  illus- 
trate the  proposition  that  the  chief  principles  and 
objects  of  modern  educational  reform  are  quite 
the  same  from  beginning  to  end  of  that  long  course 
of  education  which  extends  from  the  fifth  or  sixth 
to  the  twenty-fifth  or  twenty-sixth  year  of  life.  The 
phrase  "  educational  construction  "  would  perhaps 
be  better  than  the  phrase  "  educational  reform  " ;  for 
in  our  day  and  country  we  are  really  constructing 

316 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

all  the  methods  of  universal  democratic  education. 
We  seldom  realize  how  very  recent  and  novel  an 
undertaking  this  educational  construction  is.  As 
a  force  in  the  world,  universal  education  does  not 
go  behind  this  century  in  any  land.  It  does  not 
go  back  more  than  twenty  years  in  such  a  civilized 
country  as  France.  It  dates  from  1871  in  England. 
Plato  maintained  that  the  producing  or  industrial 
classes  needed  no  education ;  and  it  is  hardly  more 
than  a  hundred  years  since  this  Platonic  doctrine 
began  to  be  seriously  questioned  by  social  phi- 
losophers. It  is  not  true  yet  that  education  is  uni- 
versal, even  in  our  own  land;  and  in  all  lands 
educational  practice  lags  far  behind  educational 
theory.  In  this  process  of  educational  construc- 
tion, so  new,  so  strange,  so  hopeful,  I  believe  that 
the  chief  principles  and  objects  are  the  same  from 
the  kindergarten  through  the  university;  and 
therefore  I  maintain  that  school-teachers  ought  to 
understand  and  sympathize  with  university  reform 
and  progress,  and  that  college  and  university 
teachers  ought  to  comprehend  and  aid  school  re- 
form and  progress.  Let  us  review  together  those 
chief  principles  and  objects,  although  in  so  doing 
I  shall  necessarily  repeat  some  things  I  have  often 
said  before. 

1.  The  first  of  these  objects  is  the  promotion  of 
individual  instruction,  that  is,  the  addressing  of 
instruction  to  the  individual  pupil  rather  than  to 
groups  or  classes.  At  present  the  kindergarten 
and  the  university  best  illustrate  the  progress  of 
this  reform ;  but  the  beneficent  tendency  is  clearly 

317 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

exhibited  all  along  the  line.  In  elementary  and 
secondary  schools  the  effort  is  constantly  made  to 
diminish  the  number  of  pupils  assigned  to  one 
teacher ;  and  in  some  fortunate  secondary  schools 
the  proportion  of  pupils  to  teachers  has  already 
been  intentionally  made  as  favorable  as  it  has  in- 
cidentally become  in  the  most  prosperous  univer- 
sities which  have  been  adding  rapidly  to  their 
advanced  courses  of  instruction.  In  ui'ban  school 
systems  the  number  of  pupils  assigned  to  a  teacher 
is  recognized  as  the  fundamental  fact  which  de- 
termines, better  than  any  other  single  fact,  the 
quality  and  rank  of  each  system  among  those  with 
which  it  may  be  properly  compared.  Into  the  cur- 
ricula of  schools  and  colleges  alike  certain  new  mat- 
ters have  of  late  years  been  introduced,  for  teaching 
which  the  older  methods  of  instruction  —  namely, 
the  lecture  and  the  recitation  —  proved  to  be  in- 
adequate, or  even  totally  inapplicable.  These  new 
matters  are  chiefly  object-lessons  in  color  and 
form,  drawing  and  modeling,  natural  sciences  like 
botany,  zoology,  chemistry,  physics,  mineralogy, 
and  geology,  and  various  kinds  of  manual  train- 
ing. In  school  and  college  alike  the  really  effec- 
tive teaching  in  all  these  subjects  is  that  which  is 
addressed  to  each  individual  pupil.  All  labora- 
tory and  machine-shop  teaching  has  this  character, 
no  matter  what  the  subject.  The  old-fashioned 
method  of  teaching  science  by  means  of  illustrated 
books  and  demonstrative  lectures  has  been  super- 
seded, from  the  kindergarten  through  the  univer- 
sity, by  the  laboratory  method,  in  which  each  pupil, 

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The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

no  matter  whether  he  be  three  years  old  or  twenty- 
three,  works  with  his  own  hands,  and  is  taught  to 
use  his  own  senses.  G-eneral  explanations  and 
directions  may  be  given  a  class,  but  in  the  labora- 
tory each  individual's  work  must  be  separately 
supervised  and  criticized.  There  is  nothing  more 
individual  than  a  laboratory  note-book.  In  all 
laboratory  and  machine-shop  work  the  rates  of 
progress  of  different  pupils  vary  widely.  Quicker 
eyes,  defter  hands,  greater  zeal,  and  better  judg- 
ment will  tell,  and  the  teacher  has  every  oppor- 
tunity to  discover  the  natural  gifts  or  defects  of 
the  different  pupils,  and  to  develop  the  peculiar 
capacity  of  each  mind.  All  the  artistic  subjects, 
as  well  as  all  the  scientific,  require  individual  in- 
struction. In  drawing,  painting,  and  modeling 
the  instruction  is,  of  necessity,  individualized.  It 
is  one  of  the  best  results  of  the  introduction  of 
manual  training  that  each  pupil  must  receive  in- 
dividual criticism  and  guidance.  The  instructor 
is  compelled  to  deal  with  each  pupil  by  himself, 
and  to  carry  each  forward  at  his  own  rate  of  speed. 
In  short,  manual  training  breaks  up  class-room 
routine,  and  introduces  diversity  of  achievement 
in  place  of  uniform  attainment.  I  say  that  this 
principle  applies  all  the  way  from  the  kinder- 
garten to  the  professional  school.  It  applies  con- 
spicuously in  medical  instruction;  and  within 
twenty-five  years  it  has  been  there  applied  so  suc- 
cessfully that  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that 
within  this  period  the  whole  method  of  teaching 
medicine  has  been  revolutionized  throughout  the 

319 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

United  States.  It  is  now  universally  recognized 
that  it  is  impossible  to  teach  medicine  and  surgery 
to  large  numbers  of  persons  simultaneously  by 
general  descriptions,  or  by  the  use  of  diagrams, 
pictures,  or  lantern  slides  which  many  can  see  at 
once.  Not  that  illustrated  lectures  and  general 
demonstrations  are  wholly  useless,  but  they  hold 
only  a  subordinate  place.  The  really  important 
thing  is  individual,  personal  instruction,  under 
circumstances  which  permit  the  student  to  see 
and  touch  for  himself,  and  then  to  make  his  own 
record  and  draw  his  own  inferences.  Finally,  the 
highest  type  of  university  teaching  —  the  so-called 
seminary  or  conference  method  —  is  emphatically 
individual  instruction. 

It  is  hard  to  say  at  what  stage  of  education,  from 
the  primary  grade  to  the  final  university  grade, 
the  individualization  of  instruction  is  most  im- 
portant. The  truth  is  that  the  principle  applies 
with  equal  force  all  along  the  line.  For  the  univer- 
sity president,  the  school  superintendent,  and  the 
kindergartner  alike  it  should  be  the  steady  aim  and 
the  central  principle  of  educational  policy;  and 
whoever  understands  the  principle  and  its  appli- 
cations at  any  one  grade  understands  them  for  all 
grades. 

2.  Secondly,  let  me  ask  your  attention  to  six 
essential  constituents  of  all  worthy  education  — 
constituents  which,  in  my  opinion,  make  part  of 
the  educational  process  from  first  to  last,  in  every 
year  and  at  every  stage ;  and  let  me  ask  you  par- 
ticularly to  consider  which  of  these  constituents 

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The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

belong  to  schools  but  not  to  colleges,  or  to  colleges 
but  not  to  schools. 

The  first  constituent  is  the  careful  training  of 
the  organs  of  sense,  through  which  we  get  inces- 
sant and  infinitely  diversified  communications  with 
the  external  world,  including  in  that  phrase  the 
whole  inanimate  and  animate  creation  with  all 
human  monuments  and  records.  Through  the  gate 
of  accurate  observation  come  all  kinds  of  know- 
ledge and  experience.  The  little  child  must  learn 
to  see  with  precision  the  forms  of  letters,  to  hear 
exactly  the  sounds  of  words  and  phrases,  and  by 
touch  to  discriminate  between  wet  and  dry,  hot 
and  cold,  smooth  and  rough.  The  organs  of  sense 
are  not  for  scientific  uses  chiefly:  all  ordinary 
knowledge  for  practical  purposes  comes  through 
them,  and  language,  too,  with  all  which  language 
implies  and  renders  possible.  Then  comes  prac- 
tice in  grouping  and  comparing  different  sensa- 
tions or  contacts,  and  in  drawing  inferences  from 
such  comparisons — practice  which  is  indispensable 
in  every  field  of  knowledge.  Next  comes  training 
in  making  a  record  of  the  observation,  the  com- 
parison, or  the  grouping.  This  record  may  ob- 
viously be  made  either  in  the  memory  or  in  written 
form;  but  practice  in  making  accurate  records 
there  must  be  in  all  effective  education.  Fourthly 
comes  training  of  the  memory,  or,  in  other  words, 
practice  in  holding  in  the  mind  the  records  of  ob- 
servations, groupings,  and  comparisons.  Fifthly 
comes  training  in  the  power  of  expression  —  in 
clear,  concise  exposition,  and  in  argument,  or  the 
21  321 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

logical  setting  forth  of  a  process  of  reasoning.  This 
training  in  the  logical  development  of  a  reasoning 
process  is  almost  the  consummation  of  education ; 
but  there  is  one  other  essential  constituent,  namely, 
the  steady  inculcation  of  those  supreme  ideals 
through  which  the  human  race  is  uplifted  and 
ennobled — the  ideals  of  beauty,  honor,  duty,  and 
love. 

These  six  I  believe  to  be  essential  constituents 
of  education  in  the  highest  sense :  we  must  learn 
to  see  straight  and  clear;  to  compare  and  infer; 
to  make  an  accurate  record;  to  remember;  to  ex- 
press our  thought  with  precision ;  and  to  hold  fast 
lofty  ideals.  The  processes  I  have  described  as 
separate  often  take  place  in  the  mind  so  rapidly 
that  they,  or  some  of  them,  seem  to  us  simul- 
taneous. Thus,  intelligent  conversation  involves 
observation,  comparison,  record,  memory,  and  ex- 
pression, all  in  a  flash.  But  if  these  be  constitu- 
ents of  education,  is  not  education  a  continuous 
process  of  one  nature  from  beginning  to  end?  Are 
not  these  six  constituents  to  be  simultaneously  and 
continuously  developed,  from  earliest  childhood  to 
maturity?  The  child  of  five  years  should  begin 
to  think  clearly  and  justly,  and  he  should  begin  to 
know  what  love  and  duty  mean;  and  the  mature 
man  of  twenty-five  should  still  be  training  his 
powers  of  observing,  comparing,  recording,  and 
expressing.  The  aims  and  the  fundamental 
methods  at  all  stages  of  education  should,  there- 
fore, be  essentially  the  same,  because  the  essential 
constituents   of    education    are  the    same  at  all 

}22 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

stages.  The  grammar-school  pupil  is  trying  to 
do  the  same  kinds  of  things  which  the  high-school 
pupil  is  trying  to  do,  though,  of  course,  with  less 
developed  powers.  The  high-school  pupil  has  the 
same  intellectual  needs  which  the  university  stu- 
dent feels.  The  development  of  a  mind  may  be 
compared  with  the  development  of  a  plant :  it 
proceeds  simultaneously  and  continuously  through 
all  its  parts,  without  break  or  convulsion.  If  at 
any  stage  there  seem  to  be  a  sudden  leafing 
or  blooming,  the  suddenness  is  only  apparent. 
Leaf  and  bloom  had  long  been  prepared  —  both 
were  infolded  in  last  year's  bud.  From  first  to 
last,  it  is  the  teacher's  most  important  function 
to  make  the  pupil  think  accurately  and  express 
his  thought  with  precision  and  force ;  and  in  this 
respect  the  function  of  the  primary-school  teacher 
is  not  different  in  essence  from  that  of  the  teacher 
of  law,  medicine,  theology,  or  engineering. 

3.  A  considerable  change  in  the  methods  of 
education  has  been  determined,  during  the  past 
twenty-five  years,  by  the  general  recognition  of  the 
principle  that  effective  power  in  action  is  the  true 
end  of  education,  rather  than  the  storing  up  of  in- 
formation, or  the  cultivation  of  faculties  which  are 
mainly  receptive,  discriminating,  or  critical.  We 
are  no  longer  content,  in  either  school  or  college, 
with  imparting  a  variety  of  useful  and  ornamental 
information,  or  with  cultivating  esthetic  taste  or 
critical  faculty  in  literature  or  art.  We  are  not 
content  with  simply  increasing  our  pupils'  capacity 
for  intellectual  or  sentimental  enjoyment.     All 

323 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

these  good  things  we  seek,  to  be  sure;  but  they  are 
no  longer  our  main  ends.  The  main  object  of  edu- 
cation, nowadays,  is  to  give  the  pupil  the  power  of 
doing  himself  an  endless  variety  of  things  which, 
uneducated,  he  could  not  do.  An  education  which 
does  not  produce  in  the  pupil  the  power  of  apply- 
ing theory,  or  putting  acquisitions  into  practice,  and 
of  personally  using  for  productive  ends  his  disci- 
plined faculties,  is  an  education  which  has  missed 
its  main  end.  One  humble  illustration  of  the  influ- 
ence of  this  principle  is  the  wide  adoption  of  read- 
ing foreign  languages  at  sight  as  a  suitable  test  of 
fitness  for  admission  to  colleges.  Another  similar 
illustration  is  the  use  of  question  papers  in  geom- 
etry, containing  a  large  proportion  of  problems 
which  do  not  appear  in  explicit  form  in  the  ordi- 
nary manuals,  but  which  can  be  answered  or  solved 
by  making  a  simple  application  of  the  geometrical 
principles  developed  in  those  manuals.  These  are 
tests  of  acquired  power.  We  think  it  reasonable 
to  test  a  student  of  chemistry  by  giving  him  an 
unknown  substance  to  analyze.  Can  he  find  out 
what  it  is,  and  prove  his  discovery  correct?  In 
other  words,  can  he  apply  his  information  and 
knowledge  of  methods  to  a  problem  which  is  to 
him  wholly  unknown  ?  Has  he  acquired  not  only 
information,  but  power  I  The  whole  field  of  nat- 
ural science  is  available  for  that  kind  of  training 
in  power-getting,  which  it  is  the  main  object  of 
modern  education  to  supply.  It  is  not  what  the 
student  of  medicine  has  heard  about,  or  seen  others 
do,  but  what  he  can  do  himself  with  his  own  eyes 

324 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

and  hands  and  with  his  own  powers  of  comparing 
and  Judging,  which  will  give  him  preeminence  as 
a  physician  or  surgeon.  To  give  personal  power 
in  action  under  responsibility  is  the  prime  object 
of  all  medical  education.  This  same  principle, 
however,  applies  just  as  well  in  the  primary  school 
as  in  the  professional  school.  Education  should 
be  power-getting  all  the  time,  from  the  beginning 
to  the  end  of  its  course.  Its  fundamental  purpose 
is  to  produce  a  mental  and  moral  fiber  which  can 
carry  weight,  bear  strain,  and  endure  the  hardest 
kinds  of  labor. 

4.  The  next  educational  principle  which  I  be- 
lieve to  apply  to  two  thirds  of  the  entire  educa- 
tional course  between  five  and  twenty-five  years 
of  age  is  the  principle  of  the  selection  or  election 
of  studies.  In  the  first  three  or  four  years  of  a 
child's  education,  say  from  five  or  six  years  of 
age  to  nine  years,  there  are  not  so  many  possible 
subjects  of  equal  value  and  necessity  but  that  the 
child  may  pursue  them  all  to  some  adequate  extent; 
but  by  the  ninth  or  tenth  year  of  age  more  subjects 
will  claim  the  child's  attention  than  he  will  have 
time  for,  and  thereupon  arises  the  necessity  for  a 
selection  of  studies.  As  the  child  advances  from 
the  elementary  school  to  the  secondary  school,  and 
from  the  secondary  school  to  the  college,  the  num- 
ber and  variety  of  subjects  from  which  to  choose 
will  rapidly  increase,  until  in  the  department  of 
arts  and  sciences  of  the  university  he  will  find  that 
he  cannot  attempt  to  follow  the  twentieth  part  of 
the  instruction  offered  him.    Tables  I  and  II  in  the 

325 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

Report  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  demonstrate  abun- 
dantly the  absolute  necessity  for  selection  or  elec- 
tion of  studies  in  secondary  schools,  and  even  in 
the  later  years  of  the  elementary  course.  Who 
shall  make  the  selection?  is  really  the  only  prac- 
tical question.  The  moment  we  adopt  the  maxim 
that  no  subject  shall  be  attacked  at  all,  unless  it  is 
to  be  pursued  far  enough  to  get  from  it  the  train- 
ing it  is  fit  to  supply,  we  make  the  election  or 
selection  of  studies  a  necessity.  This  principle  has 
now  been  adopted  by  all  colleges  and  universities 
worthy  of  the  name,  and  by  the  greater  part  of  the 
leading  high  schools,  academies,  endowed  schools, 
and  private  schools ;  but  in  these  secondary  insti- 
tutions the  principle  is  commonly  applied  rather  to 
groups  of  subjects  than  to  single  subjects.  The 
result  is  an  imperfect  application  of  the  elective 
principle,  but  it  is  much  better  than  any  single 
uniform  prescribed  course.  Finally,  this  principle 
has  within  a  few  years  penetrated  the  grades,  or 
the  grammar  schools,  and  has  earned  its  way  to  a 
frank  recognition  at  that  stage  of  education. 

It  is  no  objection  to  the  principle,  and  it  estab- 
lishes no  significant  distinction  between  college 
experience  and  school  experience,  that  there  must 
obviously  be  limitations  of  diversity  of  studies 
during  school  life.  School  programmes  should  al- 
ways contain  fair  representations  of  the  four  main 
divisions  of  knowledge  —  language,  history,  natural 
science,  and  mathematics ;  but  this  does  not  mean 
that  every  child  up  to  fourteen  must  study  the 
same  things  in  the  same  proportions  and  to  the 

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The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

same  extent.  On  the  contrary,  representation  of 
the  different  kinds  of  knowledge  and  mental  action 
having  been  secured,  the  utmost  possible  provision 
should  be  made  for  the  different  tastes,  capacities, 
and  rates  of  progress  of  different  children.  More- 
over, a  main  object  in  securing  this  representation 
of  language,  history,  science,  and  mathematics  in 
the  earlier  years  of  education  is  to  give  the  teacher 
opportunity  to  discover  each  pupil's  capacities  and 
powers.  There  is,  however,  no  ground  of  distinc- 
tion between  school-teaching  and  university  teach- 
ing in  respect  to  these  special  limitations ;  for  if 
we  turn  to  the  very  last  stage  of  education,  pro- 
fessional training,  we  find  there  a  serious  limita- 
tion on  the  principle  of  election  —  a  limitation  im- 
posed by  the  necessity  of  giving  all  young  lawyers, 
physicians,  ministers,  teachers,  engineers,  biolo- 
gists, or  chemists  the  considerable  quantity  of 
strictly  professional  information  and  practice  which 
every  future  member  of  these  several  professions 
absolutely  needs.  Again,  for  the  same  reason, 
scientific  or  technological  schools  must  for  the 
present  use  a  group  system  rather  than  a  free  elec- 
tion of  studies.  They  must  adjust  their  present 
instruction  to  current  professional  needs.  The 
freest  field  for  the  principle  of  selection  or  election 
of  studies  lies  between  the  ages  of  thirteen  and 
twenty-three  —  including  five  or  six  years  of  school 
life  and  all  of  college  life.  School  men  and  college 
men  alike  should  rejoice  in  this  free  field. 

5.  The  next  rule  of  educational  reform,  which 
applies  at  every  stage  of  the  long  course  of  educa- 

327 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

tion  that  civilized  society  provides,  relates  to  what 
is  called  discipline.  Down  to  times  quite  within 
my  memory,  the  method  of  discipline,  both  in 
school  and  college,  was  extremely  simple ;  for  it  re- 
lied chiefly,  first,  on  a  highly  stimulated  emulation, 
and,  secondly,  on  the  fear  of  penalty.  It  had  not 
been  clearly  perceived  that  an  immediate,  inces- 
sant, and  intense  emulation  does  not  tend  to  de- 
velop independent  strength  of  will  and  character 
good  in  either  solitude  or  society ;  and  that  fear  of 
penalty  should  be  the  last  resort  in  education.  It 
is  now  an  accepted  doctrine  that  the  discipline  of 
childhood  should  not  be  so  different  from  that  of 
adolescence  as  to  cause  at  any  point  of  the  way  a 
full  stop  and  a  fresh  start.  A  method  of  discipline 
which  must  be  inevitably  abandoned  as  the  child 
grows  up  was  not  the  most  expedient  method  at 
the  earlier  age,  for  the  reason  that  in  education 
the  development  and  training  of  motives  should  be 
consecutive  and  progressive,  not  broken  and  dis- 
jointed. Herein  lies  one  of  the  objections  to  whip- 
ping or  other  violence  to  the  body,  and  to  aU  methods 
which  rely  on  the  fear  of  pain  or  of  artificial  penal- 
ties or  deprivations.  There  comes  an  age  when  these 
methods  are  no  longer  applicable.  At  eighteen 
there  are  no  methods  of  discipline  analogous  to 
whipping,  or  to  the  deprivation  of  butter,  sweet- 
meats, supper,  or  recreation,  or  to  the  imposition 
of  verses  to  learn,  or  of  pages  of  Latin  or  English 
to  copy.  If  this  sort  of  motive  has  been  relied  on 
up  to  eighteen,  there  will  then  be  need  of  a  whole 
new  set  of  motives.    For  these  reasons,  among 

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The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

others,  the  judicious  teacher,  like  the  judicious 
parent,  will  not  rely  in  childhood,  if  he  can  help  it, 
on  a  set  of  motives  which  he  knows  must  inevi- 
tably cease  to  operate  long  before  the  period  of 
education  is  ended.  By  preference,  permanent 
motives  should  be  relied  on  from  beginning  to  end 
of  education,  and  this  for  the  simple  reason  that 
the  formation  of  habits  is  a  great  part  of  educa- 
tion, and  in  that  formation  of  habits  is  inextricably 
involved  the  play  of  those  recurrent  emotions, 
sentiments,  and  passions  which  lead  to  habitual 
volitions.  Among  the  permanent  motives  which 
act  all  through  life  are  prudence,  caution,  emula- 
tion, love  of  approbation, —  and  particularly  the  ap- 
probation of  persons  respected  or  beloved, —  shame, 
pride,  self-respect,  pleasure  in  discovery,  activity, 
or  achievement,  delight  in  beauty,  strength,  grace, 
and  grandeur,  and  the  love  of  power,  and  of  pos- 
sessions as  giving  power.  Any  of  these  motives 
may  be  over-developed;  but  in  moderation  they 
are  all  good,  and  they  are  available  from  infancy 
to  old  age. 

From  the  primary  school  through  the  university, 
the  same  motives  should  always  be  in  play  for  the 
determination  of  the  will  and  the  regulation  of 
conduct.  Naturally  they  will  grow  stronger  and 
stronger  as  the  whole  nature  of  the  child  expands 
and  his  habits  become  more  and  more  firmly  fixed ; 
and  for  this  reason  these  same  enduring  motives 
should  be  continuously  relied  on.  Obviously,  then, 
there  is  no  difference  between  men  who  manage 
colleges  and  men  who  manage  schools  in  relation 

329 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

to  this  important  principle  of  educational  reform. 
The  methods  of  both  should  be  identical ;  and  the 
college  man  or  the  school  man  who  does  not  guide 
and  govern  through  the  reason  of  his  pupils, 
through  their  natural  interest  in  observation,  ex- 
periment, comparison,  and  argument,  and  through 
the  permanent  motives  which  lead  to  right  con- 
duct, is  not  in  sympathy  with  one  of  the  most 
humane  and  hopeful  educational  reforms  of  the 
present  generation.  All  teachers  who  deserve  the 
name  now  recognize  that  self-control  is  the  ultimate 
moral  object  of  training  in  youth  —  a  self-control 
independent  of  temporary  artificial  restraints,  ex- 
clusions, or  pressures,  as  also  of  the  physical  pres- 
ence of  a  dominating  person.  To  cultivate  in  the 
young  this  self-control  should  be  the  steady  object 
of  parents  and  teachers  all  the  way  from  babyhood 
to  full  maturity. 

6.  The  next  principle  of  educational  construc- 
tion to  which  I  invite  your  attention  is  again  one 
which  applies  throughout  the  length  and  breadth 
of  education.  It  is  the  specialization  of  teaching. 
One  might  easily  imagine  that  this  principle  had 
already  been  sufficiently  applied  in  universities, 
and  only  needed  to  be  applied  hereafter  in  schools ; 
but  the  fact  is  that  the  specialization  of  instruction 
is  still  going  on  in  universities,  and  needs  a  much 
greater  extension  in  American  colleges  and  pro- 
fessional schools  than  it  has  yet  received.  Dr. 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  was  professor  of  anatomy 
and  physiology  in  Harvard  University  down  to 
1871 ;  and  he  really  taught,  in  addition  to  these 

330 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

two  immense  subjects,  portions  of  histology  and 
pathology.  He  described  himself  as  occupying, 
not  a  chair,  but  a  settee.  The  professorship  in 
Harvard  University  which  was  successively  occu- 
pied by  G-eorge  Ticknor,  Henry  Wadsworth  Long- 
fellow, and  James  Russell  Lowell  is  the  Smith  pro- 
fessorship of  the  French  and  Spanish  languages 
and  literatures.  In  many  American  colleges  we 
find  to-day  the  same  professor  teaching  logic,  meta- 
physics, ethics,  and  political  economy.  Indeed,  this 
was  the  case  in  Harvard  College  down  to  1871,  ex- 
cept that  moral  philosophy  and  Christian  ethics 
were  detached  from  the  Alford  professorship  from 
and  after  1860.  The  specialization  of  instruction 
is  by  no  means  completed  in  American  colleges. 
It  is  better  advanced  now  in  American  secondary 
schools  than  it  was  in  the  American  colleges  eighty 
years  ago ;  and  it  is  just  beginning  to  be  developed 
in  the  American  grammar  schools,  or  grades,  where 
it  is  generally  spoken  of  as  departmental  organiza- 
tion. From  the  extension  of  this  principle  in 
American  schools  much  is  to  be  hoped  within  the 
next  ten  years,  particularly  for  the  teacher.  To 
teach  one  subject  to  pupils  at  different  stages, 
adapting  the  instruction  to  their  different  ages  and 
capacities,  watching  their  development,  and  leading 
them  on,  with  due  regard  to  individual  differences, 
through  four  or  five  years  of  continuous  progress, 
gives  an  inexhaustible  interest  to  the  teacher's 
function.  To  master  one  subject  so  as  to  be  able 
to  give  both  elementary  and  advanced  instruction 
in  it  is  for  the  teacher  himself  a  deep  source  of 

53» 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

intellectual  enthusiasm  and  growth.  Real  scholar- 
ship becomes  possible  for  him,  and  also  a  progres- 
sive intellectual  expansion  through  life;  for  only 
progressive  scholars  can  maintain  for  many  years 
the  mastery  of  even  a  single  subject.  Does  it  seem 
to  you  an  unreasonable  expectation  that  teachers 
in  the  grades,  or  grammar  schools,  should  possess 
this  mastery  of  single  subjects  ?  Careful  observa- 
tion seems  to  me  to  give  assurance  that  exceptional 
teachers,  both  men  and  women,  already  possess 
this  mastery,  and  that  what  remains  to  be  done  is 
to  make  the  exceptions  the  rule.  Toward  effect- 
ing this  great  improvement,  two  important  mea- 
sures are  the  elevation  of  normal  schools,  and  the 
creation,  or  strengthening,  of  educational  depart- 
ments in  colleges  and  universities.  At  any  rate, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  specialization  of 
instruction  is  a  common  need  from  beginning  to  end 
of  any  national  system  of  instruction,  and  that  it 
is  capable  of  adding  indefinitely  to  the  dignity, 
pleasure,  and  serviceableness  of  the  teacher's  life. 
Obviously  this  common  need  and  aspiration  should 
unite  rather  than  divide  the  various  grades  of  edu- 
cation, and  should  induce  cooperation  rather  than 
cause  dissension. 

7.  There  is  a  fundamental  policy  in  regard  to 
educational  organization  which  should  unite  in  its 
support  all  teachers,  whether  in  schools  or  uni- 
versities —  the  policy,  namely,  that  administrative 
officers  in  educational  organizations  should  be  ex- 
perts, and  not  amateurs  or  emigrants  from  other 
professions,  and  that  teachers  should  have  large 

332 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

advisory  functions  in  the  administration  of  both 
schools  and  universities.  The  American  colleges 
and  universities  are  better  organized  in  this  re- 
spect than  the  American  schools.  More  and  more, 
the  heads  of  the  institutions  of  higher  education 
are  men  of  experience  in  education  itself  or  in 
other  administrative  services.  The  presidencies  of 
colleges  are  no  longer  filled,  as  a  rule,  by  with- 
drawing from  the  ministry  men  well  advanced 
in  life  and  without  experience  in  teaching.  The 
deans  of  the  rather  distinct  schools  which  compose 
universities  are  usually  men  of  experience  in  their 
several  departments ;  and  much  power  is  exercised 
by  the  faculties  of  colleges  and  universities,  these 
faculties  being  always  bodies  composed  of  the 
more  permanent  teachers.  Moreover,  in  large  col- 
leges and  universities  all  the  teachers  of  a  given 
subject  are  often  organized  into  a  body  called  a 
division  or  department,  with  a  chairman  chosen 
from  among  them  as  a  judicious  man  and  a  distin- 
guished teacher.  These  or  similar  dispositions 
need  to  be  adopted  throughout  the  large  urban 
school  systems.  Superintendents  should  be  edu- 
cational experts  of  proved  capacity;  their  assis- 
tants, whether  called  supervisors,  inspectors,  or 
assistant  superintendents,  should  be  organized  as 
a  council  or  faculty ;  and  all  the  teachers  of  a  sin- 
gle system  should  be  associated  together  in  such  a 
way  that  by  their  representatives  they  can  bring 
their  opinions  to  bear  on  the  superintendent  and 
his  council,  or,  in  the  last  resort,  on  the  committee 
or  board  which  has  the  supreme  control  of  the  sys- 

333 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

tern.  The  teachers  of  the  same  subject  should 
also  be  organized  for  purposes  of  mutual  consulta- 
tion and  support;  and  at  their  head  should  be 
placed  the  best  teacher  of  the  subject  in  the  whole 
system,  that  his  influence  may  be  felt  throughout 
the  system  in  the  teaching  of  that  subject.  More- 
over, the  colleges  and  the  schools  need  to  be  assimi- 
lated in  respect  to  the  tenure  of  office  of  teachers. 
After  suitable  probationary  periods,  the  tenure  of 
office  for  every  teacher  should  be  during  good  be- 
havior and  efficiency. 

In  general,  the  differences  of  organization  be- 
tween colleges,  on  the  one  hand,  and  school  sys- 
tems, on  the  other,  are  steadily  growing  slighter. 
The  endowed  schools  and  academies  already  have 
an  organization  which  closely  resembles  that  of  the 
colleges;  and  all  the  recent  changes  in  the  mode 
of  conducting  urban  school  systems  tend  in  the 
good  direction  I  have  described.  There  is  in  some 
quarters  a  disposition  to  dwell  upon  the  size  of 
public-school  systems  as  compared  with  the  size  of 
colleges  and  universities ;  but  size  is  no  measure 
of  complexity.  A  university  is  indefinitely  more 
complex  than  the  largest  city  school  system,  and 
the  technical  methods  of  university  management 
are  more  various  and  intricate  than  the  technical 
methods  of  any  school  system.  Independently  of 
all  questions  of  size  or  mass,  however,  administra- 
tive reform  is  taking  the  same  directions  in  both 
colleges  and  schools :  first,  toward  expert  control 
under  constitutional  limitations ;  secondly,  toward 

534 


The  Unify  of  Educational  Reform 

stable  tenures  of  office ;  and,  thirdly,  toward  larger 
official  influence  for  teachers. 

Recalling  now  the  main  heads  which  have  been 
treated, —  namely,  the  individualization  of  instruc- 
tion, the  six  essential  constituents  of  education, 
power  in  action  as  the  true  end  of  education,  the 
selection  or  election  of  studies,  the  appeal  to  per- 
manent instead  of  temporary  motives  for  control- 
ling conduct,  the  specialization  of  teaching,  and 
the  right  principles  of  educational  organization, — 
do  we  not  see  that  the  principles  and  methods  of 
educational  reform  and  construction  have  a  com- 
mon interest  for  all  teachers,  whether  connected 
with  colleges,  secondary  schools,  or  elementary 
schools,  and  shall  we  not  agree  that  there  is  some- 
thing unphilosophical  in  the  attempt  to  prejudice 
teachers,  of  whatever  grade,  against  the  recom- 
mendations of  the  Committee  of  Ten,  and  of  the 
conferences  that  Committee  organized,  on  the 
grounds  that  a  small  majority  of  the  persons  con- 
cerned in  making  them  were  connected  with  col- 
leges, and  that  the  opinions  of  college  or  university 
officers  about  school  matters  are  of  little  value  ? 

The  plain  fact  is  that  there  is  community  of  in- 
terests and  aims  among  teachers  throughout  all  the 
grades  into  which  the  course  of  education  is  at 
present  artificially  divided.  The  identity  of  the 
principles  which  govern  reforms  and  improve- 
ments at  every  stage  is  strikingly  illustrated  by 
the  simultaneousness  and  similarity  of  the  ad- 
vances now  being  everywhere  made.    Elementary 

335 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

schools,  secondary  schools,  and  colleges  all  feel 
similar  impulses,  and  are  all  making  similar  modifi- 
cations of  their  former  methods.  I  can  testify  from 
personal  observation  that  some  of  the  administra- 
tive improvements  lately  made  in  universities  re- 
semble strikingly  improvements  made  at  the  other 
extremity  —  namely,  in  the  kindergartens.  It  is 
very  noticeable  that  even  some  of  the  mechanical 
or  business  changes  made  in  school  administration 
— changes  which  were  not  supposed  to  have  any 
bearing  on  the  philosophy  of  education,  or  on  new 
methods  of  teaching  —  have  facilitated  true  educa- 
tional reform.  Thus,  the  method  of  transporting 
children,  at  public  expense,  to  central  grammar 
schools  in  a  rural  town,  or  to  high  schools  in  large 
towns  and  cities,  has  distinctly  facilitated  the  intro- 
duction of  departmental  and  elective  instruction. 
Again,  the  purchase  and  free  issue  of  books  for 
pupils  by  towns  and  cities  has  facilitated  the  use 
of  good  literatui-e  instead  of  readers  —  an  impor- 
tant contribution  toward  improving  the  teaching 
of  the  native  language  and  literature  by  increasing 
interest  in  them  and  love  for  them.  In  like  man- 
ner, the  institution  of  departmental  libraries  — 
that  is,  of  small  working  collections  of  books  on 
the  same  general  subject,  deposited  in  a  place  by 
themselves,  and  always  accessible  to  students  of 
that  subject — has  made  possible  great  improve- 
ments in  the  instruction  of  Harvard  College  and 
many  other  colleges. 

The  Committee  of  Ten  declare,  in  their  Report, 
that  "  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  satisfactory  secon- 

33^ 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

dary-school  programme  limited  to  a  period  of  four 
years,  and  founded  on  the  present  elementary- 
school  subjects  and  methods."  In  view  of  the  rapid 
changes  now  going  on  in  elementary-school  sub- 
jects and  methods,  this  declaration  amounts  to 
saying  that  the  Committee's  work  on  the  four  secon- 
dary-school programmes  which  they  recommend 
has  only  a  temporary  interest.  Tables  I,  II,  and  III 
of  their  Report  have  some  permanent  value;  but 
Table  IV,  which  contains  the  four  programmes 
called  Classical,  Latin-Scientific,  Modern  Lan- 
guages, and  English,  and  which  cost  the  Committee 
a  great  deal  of  labor,  will  surely  be  rendered  use- 
less by  improvements  in  the  elementary  and  secon- 
dary schools  which  may  easily  be  accomplished 
within  ten  years.  Some  firm,  lasting  principles  are 
embodied  in  Table  IV,  but  the  programmes  them- 
selves are  only  temporary  trestlework. 

If  I  were  asked  to  mention  the  best  part  of  the 
contribution  which  the  Committee  of  Ten  have 
made  to  the  progress  of  American  education,  I 
should  say  that  their  general  method  of  work  was 
the  best  part, —  the  method  of  investigation  and 
discussion  by  subject  of  instruction, —  teachers 
and  experts  from  all  sorts  of  colleges  and  univer- 
sities, and  from  all  sorts  of  schools,  public,  private, 
and  endowed,  taking  part  in  both  investigation 
and  discussion.  The  Committee's  method  of  work 
emphasizes  the  community  of  interest  at  all  grades, 
and  the  fact  that  experience  at  every  grade  is  valu- 
able for  suggestion  and  counsel  at  all  other  grades. 
To  my  thinking,  the  present  artificial  and  arbitrary 


22 


337 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

distinctions  between  elementary  schools  and  sec- 
ondary schools,  or  between  grammar  schools  and 
high  schools,  have  no  philosophical  foundation, 
and  are  likely  to  be  profoundly  modified,  if  they 
do  not  altogether  pass  away.  In  the  same  sense,  I 
believe  that  the  formal  distinction  between  college 
work  and  university  work  is  likely  to  disappear, 
although  the  distinction  between  liberal  education 
and  technical  or  professional  education  is  sure  to 
endure.  I  have  never  yet  seen  in  any  college  or 
university  a  method  of  instruction  which  was  too 
good  for  an  elementary  or  a  secondary  school. 
The  alert,  inspiring,  winning,  commanding  teacher 
is  just  the  same  rare  and  admirable  person  in 
school  and  in  college.  There  is,  to  be  sure,  one  im- 
portant element  of  university  work  which  schools 
and  colleges  cannot  participate  in,  namely,  the 
element  of  original  investigation ;  but  although 
this  element  is  of  high  importance,  and  qualifies, 
or  flavors,  a  considerable  part  of  university  work, 
there  remains  in  all  large  universities,  and  particu- 
larly in  those  which  make  much  of  professional 
training,  an  immense  body  of  purely  disciplinary 
work,  all  of  which  is,  or  should  be,  conducted  on 
principles  and  by  methods  which  apply  throughout 
the  whole  course  of  education.  When  it  is  a  ques- 
tion how  best  to  teach  a  given  subject,  the  chances 
are  that  college  or  scientific-school  teachers  of 
that  subject  can  help  school-teachers,  and  that 
school-teachers  can  help  college  teachers.  More- 
over, it  is  important  that  each  should  know  what 
the  other  does.    I  have  observed,  too,  that  even 

33^ 


The  Unity  of  Educational  Reform 

when  neither  party  is  ready  to  venture  on  affirma- 
tive counsel,  each  is  pretty  well  prepared  to  tell 
the  other  what  not  to  do.  Such  negative  counsel 
is  often  very  useful. 

On  the  whole,  the  greatest  promise  of  usefulness 
which  I  see  in  the  Eeport  of  the  Committee  of  Ten 
lies  in  its  obvious  tendency  to  promote  cooperation 
among  school  and  college  teachers,  and  all  other 
persons  intelligently  interested  in  education,  for 
the  advancement  of  well-marked  and  comprehen- 
sive educational  reforms. 


339 


MEDICAL  EDUCATION  OF  THE  FUTURE 

Reprint  from  "  American  Medico-Surgical  Bulletin," 
February  i,   1896. 


22* 


MEDICAL   EDUCATION 
OF  THE  FUTURE' 


I  SHALL  make  no  apology  for  asking  your 
attention  to  some  considerations  which  tend 
to  show  that  the  education  of  the  physician  should 
hereafter  be  much  more  thorough  and  extensive 
than  it  has  been  or  is,  and  particularly  that  pre- 
liminary training  should  begin  earlier  and  be  made 
more  substantial.  Inasmuch  as  the  help  of  many 
educated  persons  who  are  not  physicians  is  indis- 
pensable to  the  accomplishment  of  the  needed 
educational  reforms,  I  shall  ask  leave  to  keep  in 
mind  on  this  occasion  not  only  this  professional 
audience,  but  also  the  non-professional  multitude 
whose  sympathy  and  aid  we  shall  need.  You  will 
kindly  see  in  this  purpose  the  explanation  of  the 
fact  that  I  shall  mention,  in  the  course  of  this 
address,  many  things  already  familiar  to  medical 
men. 
The  improvements  in  medical  education  have 

1  Address  before  the  Medical  Society  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
January  28,  1896. 

343 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

been  very  great  during  the  lifetime  of  the  older 
men  in  this  assembly,  and  perhaps  some  of  my 
auditors  may  think  that  the  changes  already 
wrought  justify  satisfaction  with  present  achieve- 
ments, and  a  contented  repose  on  laurels  won.  I 
wish  to  draw  another  moral  from  the  improvements 
of  the  last  twenty-five  years  —  the  moral,  namely, 
that  we  should  be  encouraged  by  the  great  im- 
provements already  attained  to  work  hopefully 
for  improvements  still  needed.  As  an  encourage- 
ment to  further  exertions,  let  me  briefly  contrast 
the  conditions  of  medical  education  to-day  with 
those  of  thirty  years  ago,  mentioning  only  the 
rough  typical  facts,  without  entering  into  local 
details.  Thirty  years  ago  there  were  no  require- 
ments for  admission  to  our  medical  schools.  To 
secure  admission  a  young  man  had  nothing  to  do 
but  to  register  his  name  and  pay  a  fee.  In  conse- 
quence, a  large  proportion  of  medical  students  were 
persons  who  in  youth  had  received  a  very  scanty 
preliminary  training.  Hundreds  of  young  men 
joined  the  medical  schools  of  the  United  States 
who  could  barely  read  and  write,  and  whose  pow- 
ers of  observation  and  reasoning  had  scarcely 
been  exercised  at  all,  except  in  their  sports  or  in 
the  labors  which  had  given  them  a  livelihood.  The 
total  period  of  required  school  attendance  for  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  did  not  exceed,  in 
the  best  schools,  three  winter  terms  of  four  months 
each ;  and  there  were  schools  accounted  respectable 
which  had  even  a  shorter  total  period  than  this. 
The  main  means  of  instruction  were  lectures,  sur- 

344 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

gical  exhibitions  in  large  rooms  appropriately  called 
theaters,  rude  dissecting-rooms  with  scanty  super- 
vision, and  clinical  visits  in  large  groups.  The 
lectures  were  repeated  year  after  year  with  little 
change,  and  no  graded  course  was  laid  down  for 
the  student  to  follow  during  the  three  consecutive 
winters.  At  graduation  the  examination  was  ordi- 
narily entirely  oral  and  very  brief ;  and  at  Harvard, 
at  least,  every  man  got  his  degree  who  passed  in 
a  majority  of  nine  subjects,  every  one  of  the  nine 
being  really  indispensable.  Under  this  system 
young  men  might  receive  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Medicine  who  had  had  no  academic  training  what- 
ever, and  who  were  ignorant  of  four  out  of  nine 
fundamental  medical  subjects  at  the  time  they 
received  their  degree.  A  majority  of  young  medi- 
cal practitioners  were,  therefore,  uncultivated  men, 
with  scanty  knowledge  of  medicine  and  surgery, 
who  had  had  opportunity  for  but  a  small  amount 
of  observation  by  the  bedside  and  but  little  prac- 
tical experience  in  hospitals.  It  speaks  volumes 
for  the  educating  force  of  medical  practice  that 
out  of  such  raw  material  there  could  be  produced, 
in  the  course  of  years,  so  fair  a  proportion  of  skilful, 
humane,  and  successful  practitioners.  We  have 
here  a  demonstration  that  medical  study,  contrary 
to  a  too  common  opinion,  is  to  a  man  of  ordinary 
intelligence  and  conscientiousness  refining,  devel- 
oping, and  uplifting.  These  excellent  influences, 
however,  it  is  the  province  of  a  well-conceived, 
systematic  education  to  provide  in  youth,  before 
practice  begins. 

345 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

The  cost  of  a  medical  education  at  the  period  of 
which  I  speak  may  be  fairly  represented  by  about 
three  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  paid  to  a  medical 
school,  to  which  sum  should  be  added  the  student's 
board  and  lodging  for  about  a  year.  During  the 
other  two  years  of  the  three  which  were  supposed 
to  be  devoted  to  training  in  medicine,  the  student 
was  ordinarily  able  to  do  something  for  his  own 
support,  or  at  least  he  was  favorably  situated  in 
regard  to  the  cost  of  board  and  lodging.  The 
present  conditions  are  very  different.  At  the  Har- 
vard Medical  School  the  cost  of  a  degree  in  money 
is  now  about  eight  hundred  and  thirty-five  dollars, 
besides  laboratory  charges ;  and  the  student  must 
give  four  whole  years  to  the  school,  except  that 
during  the  three  months  of  summer  he  may  enjoy 
a  vacation,  or  earn  something  toward  his  support, 
unless,  indeed,  he  choose  to  take  some  of  the  many 
summer  courses  which  are  offered  him.  Accord- 
ingly, he  has  his  board  and  lodging  to  provide  for 
during  thirty-six  months  of  term-time  instead  of 
twelve.  He  is  required  to  pass  an  examination  at 
admission,  which,  though  not  comparable  to  the 
examination  for  admission  to  Harvard  College, 
nevertheless  proves  that  he  has  had  some  training 
in  a  secondary  school.  The  Harvard  medical  stu- 
dent must,  therefore,  have  had  some  educational 
profit  out  of  his  early  years,  although  the  standard 
in  this  regard  is  still  altogether  too  low.  No  student 
can  graduate  until  he  has  passed  a  satisfactory 
examination  in  every  one  of  the  prescribed  subjects 
taught  in  the  school,  and  in  a  small  selection  of 

346 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

elective  subjects.  The  subjects  of  instruction  are 
arranged  in  a  carefully  graded  course,  which  car- 
ries the  student  forward  in  an  orderly  and  logical 
way  from  year  to  year  through  all  four  years. 
Moreover,  the  methods  of  teaching  have  undergone 
fundamental  alteration.  Thirty  years  ago  there 
were  only  two  laboratories  in  the  Harvard  Medical 
School  —  a  dissecting-room,  in  which  the  manners 
and  customs  were  as  rough  and  unwholesome  as 
the  room  and  its  accessories,  and  a  little  chemical 
laboratory  in  which  no  one  was  required  to  work. 
A  small  minority  of  the  students  voluntarily  sought 
some  laboratory  training  in  chemistry.  In  our 
present  medical  school  laboratory  work  of  many 
sorts  demands  a  large  part  of  the  student's  atten- 
tion. There  are  laboratories  in  anatomy,  medical 
chemistry,  physiology,  histology,  embryology,  pa- 
thology, and  bacteriology;  and  in  all  these  some 
work  is  prescribed,  and  additional  work  is  done  by 
many.  In  clinical  teaching,  moreover,  the  change 
is  great.  Formerly  a  large  group  of  students  ac- 
companied a  visiting  physician  on  his  rounds  at 
the  hospital,  and  saw  what  they  could  under  very 
disadvantageous  conditions.  Now  instruction  has 
become,  in  many  clinical  departments,  absolutely 
individual,  the  instructor  dealing  with  one  student 
at  a  time,  and  personally  showing  him  how  to  see, 
hear,  and  touch  for  himself  in  all  sorts  of  difficult 
observation  and  manipulation.  Much  instruction 
is  given  to  small  groups  of  students,  three  or  four 
at  a  time  —  no  more  than  can  actually  see  and  touch 
for  themselves.    A  four  years'  course  of  training 

347 


Medical  Education  of  tbe  Future 

such  as  I  have  described  has  a  high  degree  of 
training-power  both  for  the  senses  and  the  reason. 
The  old  medical  teaching  was  largely  exposition ; 
it  gave  information  at  long  range  about  things  and 
processes  which  were  not  within  reach  or  sight 
at  the  moment.  The  new  medical  education  aims 
at  imparting  manual  and  ocular  skill,  and  culti- 
vating the  mental  powers  of  close  attention  through 
prolonged  investigations  at  close  quarters  with  the 
facts,  and  of  just  reasoning  on  the  evidence.  These 
beneficent  changes  have  been  brought  about  within 
the  lifetime  of  the  youngest  men  here  present, 
without  shock  to  the  community,  or  any  serious 
loss  to  the  medical  schools  or  to  any  other  class 
of  educational  institutions.  Indeed,  the  medical 
schools  have  profited  in  all  respects  by  the  changes 
I  have  described,  and  the  schools  which  have  been 
most  progressive  have,  in  the  long  run,  made  the 
largest  proportional  gains,  allowance  being  made 
for  differences  in  their  natural  sources  of  student 
supply.  If,  therefore,  in  the  course  of  this  ad- 
dress I  seem  to  you  to  be  asking  much  of  the 
coming  generation,  I  may  appeal  confidently  to  the 
recent  past  as  justifying  high  expectations  for 
the  future. 

I  proceed  to  describe  and  illustrate  some  of  the 
new  demands  made  on  the  student  of  medicine 
and  the  practitioner,  in  consequence  of  the  many 
advances  made  since  the  Civil  War  in  medical  sci- 
ence and  art.  Before  the  war  the  microscope,  steth- 
oscope, ophthalmoscope,  and  laryngoscope  were 
already  in  use,  and  had  given  new  accuracy  and 

348 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

certainty  to  the  diagnosis  of  some  diseases;  but 
within  the  thirty  years  just  past  the  means  of 
medical  diagnosis  have  been  multiplied  and  ex- 
tended in  many  different  directions,  and  some  of 
these  new  means  depend  on  sciences  which  hardly 
entered  at  all  into  the  education  of  a  physician  two 
generations  ago,  and  on  manual  and  ocular  skill, 
which  only  a  small  part  of  the  present  profession 
possesses.  To  understand  thoroughly  and  use  ef- 
fectively these  new  means  imply  extensive  acquisi- 
tions of  knowledge  and  much  practice  in  delicate 
and  accurate  manipulations  and  refined  observa- 
tions. To  make  plain  to  the  comprehension  of 
non-professional  as  well  as  professional  persons 
the  gravity  of  these  new  demands  on  the  thorough- 
going student  of  medicine,  I  may  mention  as  briefly 
as  possible  some  of  the  comparatively  new  instru- 
mentalities of  diagnosis.  (1)  The  recording  ther- 
mometer, which  has  not  yet  been  thirty  years  in 
common  use,  gives  in  many  diseases  definite  warn- 
ing of  danger  with  a  certainty  which  collateral 
symptoms  do  not  possess.  The  diurnal  variation 
of  temperature  in  typhoid  fever  has  furnished  an 
almost  certain  method  of  diagnosis  for  that  disease. 
Many  of  my  hearers  can  remember  when  this  in- 
valuable instrument  first  came  into  general  bed- 
side use.  (2)  The  examination  of  urine  has  taken 
on  new  forms,  and  has  greatly  improved  in  rapid- 
ity and  certainty.  Not  only  sugar,  albumin,  and 
casts  are  detected  with  certainty  and  with  esti- 
mates of  quantities,  but  the  presence  of  biliary 
matter  in  the  urine  is  observed,  and  of  materials 

349 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

of  the  blood,  when  destructive  changes  of  internal 
organs  are  going  on.  Chemistry  and  microscopy 
conspire  to  make  these  determinations  accurate 
and  sure.  (3)  The  microscopic  examination  of  the 
blood  is  a  new  means  of  diagnosis  of  the  utmost 
value.  We  may  already  say  with  confidence, 
no  blood-parasite,  no  malaria;  and  it  is  quite 
within  reasonable  hope  that  the  microscopic  study 
of  the  blood-corpuscles  may  lead  not  only  to  a 
sure  diagnosis,  but  to  an  improved  treatment  of 
these  mysterious  and  wide-spread  diseases  to  which 
the  vague  term  "malarial"  has  so  long  been 
vaguely  applied.  The  increase  of  white  corpuscles 
in  the  blood  also  affords  valuable  diagnostic  indi- 
cations. (4)  The  microscopic  discrimination  between 
malignant  and  non-malignant  tumors  is  another 
important  gain  in  microscopic  diagnosis.  It  is 
but  recently  that  the  microseopist  has  stood  be- 
side the  operating  surgeon  to  tell  him  whether  a 
tissue  close  to  the  path  of  the  knife  is  normal  or 
abnormal,  safe  or  unsafe  to  leave  behind.  It  is 
but  lately  that  the  microscope  has  demonstrated 
that  a  large  proportion  of  cutaneous  diseases  are 
absolutely  characterized  by  parasitic  growths,  so 
that  the  particular  parasitic  growth  present  may  be 
relied  on  for  diagnosis.  It  is  only  within  recent 
years  that  a  bacteriological  laboratory,  and  accom- 
modations for  animals  kept  for  inoculation  uses, 
have  been  considered  useful  adjuncts  of  wards  for 
cutaneous  diseases.  (5)  It  is,  however,  to  bacteri- 
ology that  we  owe  the  greatest  improvements  in 
medical  diagnosis  —  a  science  and  art  so  recent 

350 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

that  most  of  my  auditors  received  their  medical 
education  before  this  subject  entered  at  all  into 
the  curricula  of  medical  schools.  The  extraordi- 
nary contributions  of  this  science  to  medical  art  I 
can  barely  mention.  It  has  already  supplied  a 
sure  means  of  determining  the  presence  of  diph- 
theria, and  an  extraordinarily  successful  mode  of 
treating  that  terrible  disease.  It  has  made  sure 
the  diagnosis  of  cholera,  and  holds  out  a  good 
hope  of  arriving  at  successful  treatment  of  that 
pestilence.  It  has  isolated  the  bacillus  of  tetanus 
—  a  disease  which  has  long  been  a  reproach  of 
medical  science  —  and  has  pointed  out  the  hopeful 
method  of  treatment.  It  has  discovered  the  bacil- 
lus of  tuberculosis,  provided  a  sure  test  for  tuber- 
culosis in  domestic  animals  which  are  in  contact 
with  man,  and  taught  us  much  about  the  manner 
in  which  the  disease  may  be  communicated,  al- 
though it  has  not  yet  achieved  a  successful  method 
of  treating  the  disease  in  man.  The  discoveries 
already  made  indicate  general  methods  of  research 
which  should  lead,  in  no  long  time,  to  great  im- 
provements in  ordinary  vaccination,  and  in  the 
diagnosis  and  treatment  of  scarlet  fever,  erysip- 
elas, and  typhoid  fever.  It  has  also  very  much 
improved  our  means  of  discriminating  between 
noxious  and  innocuous  water-supplies  and  milk- 
supplies.  The  contributions  of  bacteriology  to  the 
medical  art  are  all  the  more  remarkable  because 
its  methods  and  processes  are  still  enveloped  in 
much  mystery — mystery  which  teaches  us  to  ex- 
pect much  from  the  further  developments  of  the 

351 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

new  science  as  it  gradually  disperses  the  fogs 
which  now  envelop  it.  It  should  be  mentioned,  in 
passing,  that  bacteriology  itself  owes  its  existence 
to  admirable  recent  inventions  which  are  not  at 
all  biological,  namely,  the  improved  immersion 
lens  and  the  ingenious  methods  of  staining.  These 
inventions  made  bacteriology  possible. 

What  extensive  fields  of  knowledge  are  famil- 
iarly utilized  in  these  new  methods  of  diagnosis 
—  physics,  medical  chemistry,  normal  and  patho- 
logical histology,  and  bacteriology,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, the  various  skills  required  in  exact  chemical, 
physical,  and  microscopic  observation  and  manipu- 
lation !  Every  physician  and  surgeon  ought  to 
have  been  trained  in  youth  —  in  good  part  before 
his  strictly  medical  education  began  —  in  these 
subsidiary  sciences  and  arts,  and  made  capable  of 
performing  himself  the  operations  involved  in 
these  new  methods  of  diagnosis,  of  understanding 
the  present  state  of  these  methods,  and  also  of 
apprehending  and  mastering  the  fresh  discoveries 
which  every  decade  will  surely  bring.  The  phy- 
sician or  surgeon  who  does  not  know  how  to  uti- 
lize these  great  discoveries  will,  at  the  best,  become 
a  dependent  on  somebody  who  does. 

After  diagnosis,  there  comes,  in  many  cases,  a 
painstaking  search  for  the  causes  or  sources  of  the 
disease  —  a  search  to  be  made  by  the  physician 
sometimes  for  the  patient's  sake,  but  oftener  for 
the  benefit  of  his  family  or  the  community.  This 
search  has  become  during  the  last  thirty  years 
much  more  feasible.    Pathological  exploration  has 

352 


Medical  Education  of  ibe  Future 

taught  us  the  approximate  causes  of  several 
important  diseases,  and  therefore  hap  taught  us 
where  to  seek  their  sources,  although,  indeed,  the 
pure  cultures  of  bacteriology  do  not  occur  in  any- 
such  simple  and  isolated  forms  in  the  actual  en- 
vironment of  man.  We  have  learned  much  about 
the  transmission  of  disease  through  drinking- 
water,  ice,  and  milk.  We  understand  better  than 
ever  before  the  intimate  connection  between  some 
diseases  of  animals  and  diseases  in  man.  We  are 
put  on  our  guard  against  the  long-lived  scales  or 
flakes  of  scarlet  fever,  the  sputa  of  tuberculosis, 
the  stools  in  typhoid,  and  other  excreta  of  diseased 
persons.  Nevertheless,  few  physicians  seem  to  be 
capable  of  tracing  to  its  source  an  epidemic  of 
typhoid  fever,  for  example,  or  an  outbreak  of  scar- 
let fever  or  diphtheria.  I  have  been  told,  both  in 
this  country  and  in  England,  that  this  faculty  is 
rare  among  physicians,  so  that  health  authorities 
are  obliged  to  train  specialists  for  such  service. 
It  seems  as  if  every  physician  ought  to  be  a 
guardian  of  the  community  in  this  respect,  capa- 
ble of  rendering  the  promptest  and  most  effec- 
tive service  at  a  moment's  warning.  Yet  to  be 
equipped  for  such  service  means  thorough  ac- 
quaintance with  the  most  recent  developments 
of  preventive  medicine,  and  with  the  newest 
methods  of  research  which  chemistry,  physics,  and 
biology  have  at  command.  Such  duties  are  some- 
times spoken  of  as  extra-professional;  but  that 
term,  so  applied,  seems  to  restrict  the  medical 
practitioner  to  the  mitigation  or  cure  of  disease, 

^  353 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

without  recognizing  his  more  important  function 
in  the  prevention  of  disease. 

The  next  duty  of  the  physician  is  to  give  such 
careful  attention  to  his  patient's  surroundings  as 
to  compass  the  removal  of  all  hindrances  to  na- 
ture in  its  restorative  processes.  We  have  a  much 
better  conception  than  our  predecessors  of  the  na- 
ture of  these  hindrances,  and,  it  may  be  added,  of 
the  nature  of  favorable  surroundings.  We  know 
that  a  sick  person  is  helped  by  every  external  con- 
dition favorable  to  health,  and  hindered  by  every 
adverse  condition.  The  sick  need,  even  more  than 
the  well,  pure  air,  suitable  food,  and  an  exquisite 
cleanliness;  yet  how  much  knowledge,  observa- 
tion, and  decision  are  necessary  to  the  maintain- 
ing of  sanitary  conditions  in  any  patient's  dwelling 
—  and  particularly  in  luxurious  dwellings  filled 
with  dust-holding  moldings,  hangings,  uphol- 
stered furniture,  thick  carpets,  and  elaborate  knick- 
knacks  ;  or,  at  the  other  end  of  the  social  scale,  in 
the  dirty  and  crowded  dwellings  of  the  poor,  too 
often  built  on  land  which  is  cheap  because  ill 
drained  and  unwholesome.  Trust  in  drugs  has 
greatly  diminished  during  the  past  thirty  years, 
while  reliance  on  favorable  surroundings  has 
greatly  increased.  To  secure  favorable  conditions 
is  infinitely  more  difficult  than  to  drug,  and  re- 
quires not  only  larger  knowledge,  but  keener  per- 
ception, together  with  a  high  degree  of  persuasive 
influence  and  authoritative  persistence.  The  phy- 
sician who  desires  to  give  his  patient  every  possi- 
ble chance  of  successfully  resisting  his  malady 

354 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

must  take  thought  for  the  ventilation  of  his  room 
and  his  bed,  for  the  sources  of  the  water  he  drinks 
and  of  the  milk  he  takes,  and  for  the  disinfection 
of  whatever  comes  in  contact  with  the  patient  or 
is  excreted  by  him ;  he  must  direct  the  admission 
of  light  and  air,  and  determine  the  temperatures  to 
which  the  patient  shall  be  exposed.  On  all  these 
points  superstitions  and  thoroughly  irrational  prac- 
tices have  prevailed  for  generations,  and  the  phy- 
sician must  often  be  at  once  the  defender  of  his 
patient  against  artificial  adverse  surroundings, 
and  the  persuasive  instructor  of  his  kindred  and 
nurses.  The  physician's  care  must  not  only 
compass  isolation  when  isolation  is  needed,  but 
adequate  disinfection,  and,  if  the  issue  be  unfavor- 
able, the  proper  treatment  of  the  body  which  has 
succumbed  to  contagious  disease.  It  is  the  con- 
stant function  of  the  physician  to  teach  just  con- 
ceptions of  contagion,  and  of  the  duties  incumbent 
on  the  victim  of  contagious  disease,  and  on  those 
who  take  care  of  him.  It  is  a  natural  consequence 
of  this  view  of  the  importance  of  the  patient's  sur- 
roundings that  nursing  receives  so  much  more  at- 
tention in  recent  years  than  it  formerly  did.  The 
Cambridge  Hospital  motto,  "Man  tends;  Q-od 
mends,"  expresses  concisely  the  modern  conception 
of  the  importance  of  surroundings. 

The  past  thirty  years  have  not  been  as  fruitful 
in  new  methods  of  treatment  as  in  new  methods  of 
diagnosis  and  of  care  of  surroundings.  They  have 
been  chiefly  remarkable  for  great  modifications  of 
medical  and  surgical  practices  in  conformity  with 

355 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

the  general  doctrine  of  asepsis.  It  is  this  doctrine, 
applied  every  year  with  greater  and  greater  suc- 
cess, which  has  given  surgery  such  prodigious 
extension  dui'ing  the  period  under  consideration, 
and  enabled  it  to  invade  successfully  the  province 
of  medicine.  It  is  fundamentally  a  doctrine  of 
thorough  cleanliness;  but  surgical  cleanliness  is 
an  extreme  application  of  the  doctrine.  In  daily 
life  we  cannot  all  be  constantly  washing  our  hands 
in  permanganate  and  then  in  oxalic  acid ;  but  we 
can  all  appreciate  the  hygienic  value  of  cleanliness 
in  oui*  persons,  dwellings,  vehicles,  offices,  shops, 
and  factories,  and  we  can  all  see  now  the  scientific 
grounds  of  some  practices  which  have  been  author- 
itatively commended  to  mankind  for  thousands 
of  years,  such  as  the  washing  of  the  hands  before 
eating.  After  the  feats  of  abdominal  surgery,  the 
most  extraordinary  triumph  of  asepsis  has  been 
seen  in  obstetrics,  the  perils  of  childbirth  having 
been  apparently  reduced,  within  the  past  fifteen 
years,  to  a  small  fraction  of  their  former  magni- 
tude. We  hardly  yet  realize  what  an  immense 
benefit  to  the  human  race  is  this  single  result  of 
the  combination  of  discoveries  and  inventions 
which  together  make  asepsis  practicable.  That 
the  mortality  of  a  lying-in  hospital  should  have 
been  reduced  from  thirty-three  per  cent,  to  one 
third  of  one  per  cent,  gives  but  a  faint  picture  of 
the  beneficent  results  of  these  discoveries.  It  is 
clear,  however,  that  the  physician  who  thoroughly 
understands  and  practises  asepsis  in  obstetrical 
cases  has  not  only  more  knowledge  than  his  pred- 

35(> 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

ecessor  of  fifty  years  ago,  who  denied  that  puer- 
peral fever  was  contagious,  but  also  much  more 
skill.  He  must  be  an  adept  in  practices  and  manip- 
ulations which  it  never  entered  into  the  head  of 
an  obstetrician  of  the  year  1860  to  conceive  of. 

It  is  one  effect  of  aseptic  surgery  that  the  treat- 
ment of  not  a  few  diseases  has  become  much  more 
expensive  than  it  used  to  be ;  hence  an  inevitable 
increase  in  the  expenditure  of  private  persons  for 
medical  and  surgical  help,  and  a  significant  in- 
crease in  the  average  weekly  cost  of  hospital 
patients.  A  pain  in  the  bowels,  which  formerly 
would  have  been  economically  treated  by  a  physi- 
cian, is  now  often  treated  by  a  surgeon,  with  a 
costly  operation  and  several  weeks'  attendance  by 
expensive  nurses.  A  large  saving  of  human  life 
has,  to  be  sure,  resulted,  but  at  inevitable  cost  for 
highly  skilled  labor.  It  is  no  inconsiderable  attain- 
ment for  a  physician  in  ordinary  practice  to  have 
learned  when  to  call  in  a  surgeon  or  other  special- 
ist, and  this  particular  mode  of  practising  keen 
observation  and  sound  judgment  is  comparatively 
new.  We  have  by  no  means  reached  as  yet  the 
limit  of  this  substitution  of  surgical  for  medical 
treatment.  We  may  expect  to  see  the  knife  pene- 
trate safely  and  effectively  many  portions  of  the 
human  frame  which  the  ordinary  surgeon  is  still 
afraid  to  touch  —  such,  for  instance,  as  the  lungs, 
and  even  the  heart.  It  is  not  yet  twenty-five  years 
since  I  heard  the  most  eminent  surgeon  of  his  day 
in  Boston  say,  in  language  too  strong  to  repeat, 
that,  in  his  opinion,  to  attempt  ovariotomy  was 
28.  337 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

utterly  unjustifiable.  On  every  hand  we  see  that 
the  new  methods  in  medicine  and  surgery  demand 
not  only  more  knowledge  and  skill  in  the  practi- 
tioner, but  more  insight  and  sagacity,  faculties  to 
whose  development  nature  and  elaborate  training 
must  both  contribute. 

I  have  already  said  that  the  dependence  on  drugs 
has  much  diminished ;  but  during  the  period  which 
we  are  considering  the  number  and  variety  of 
therapeutic  agents  have  greatly  increased,  and 
there  has  been  active  experimentation  on  the  vir- 
tues of  these  multifarious  substances.  The  physi- 
cian of  to-day  is  solicited  by  numerous  novel 
specifics,  made  attractive  in  form  and  flavor,  and 
enthusiastically  recommended  by  simple-minded 
persons  who  have  tried  them  in  their  own  bodies, 
and  not  infrequently  by  some  physicians  who 
share  the  common  American  fondness  for  a  new 
thing.  The  multiplicity  of  these  therapeutic  nov- 
elties makes  a  new  call  on  the  physician  for  dis- 
criminating judgment  and  rational  insistence  on  a 
real  demonstration  of  the  usefulness  of  the  new 
agent.  Where  the  physician  of  thirty  years  ago 
had  need  of  this  discriminating  judgment  once, 
the  physician  of  to-day  has  need  of  it  a  hundred 
times. 

The  progress  of  preventive  medicine  has  im- 
posed on  physicians  a  new  class  of  duties,  for  the 
discharge  of  which  a  high  degree  of  disciplined 
intelligence  is  required.  They  are  the  only  per- 
sons in  the  community  who  can  thoroughly  under- 
stand and  explain  the  established  principles  and 

358 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

well-proved  practices  of  preventive  medicine,  and 
they  are  therefore  the  most  effective  teachers  of 
these  principles  and  practices.  The  family  physi- 
cian should  be  responsible  for  the  care  of  health 
even  more  than  for  the  treatment  of  disease.  It 
should  be  his  function  to  give  advice  about  the 
ways  and  means  of  healthy  family  life  —  about 
diet,  sleep,  fresh  air,  exercise,  and  habits  of  quiet- 
ness and  serene  cheerfulness.  Physicians  must 
instruct  the  community  in  the  new  methods  by 
which  good  public  water-supplies  are  provided, 
tested,  and  preserved ;  and  they  must  be  equally 
familiar  with  the  right  methods  of  disposing  of 
sewage,  for  the  disposal  of  sewage  is  really  a  prob- 
lem of  pure  water-supply.  They  must  understand 
the  restoration  of  polluted  waters  to  a  safe  condi- 
tion, through  filtration,  aeration,  and  dilution. 
Their  judgment  should  be  the  final  one  in  families 
concerning  the  safety  of  any  given  water-supply; 
and  that  judgment  should  be  well  founded  on  a 
general  acquaintance  with  the  subject  and  on  all 
relevant  local  information.  Physicians  should 
also  understand  the  general  principles  and  most 
approved  practices  in  ventilation;  for  ventilation 
is  not  only  a  means  of  promoting  health,  but  also 
a  means  of  defense,  through  dilution,  against  con- 
tagion and  other  noxious  influences.  Now,  ven- 
tilation, in  both  public  and  private  buildings,  is  in 
itself  a  very  difficult  subject,  and  one  but  recently 
developed  in  a  practical  way.  As  the  mechanical 
construction  of  our  buildings  improves,  they  be- 
come tighter,  and  as  heating  contrivances  become 

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Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

more  economical  as  regards  the  proportion  of  uti- 
lized heat  to  wasted  heat  they  become  less  valuable 
as  means  of  ventilation.  The  roaring  fire  in  the 
wide  chimney  of  our  grandfathers  made  a  great 
draft;  the  quiet  but  effectual  coal-stove  is  an 
inferior  means  of  ventilation.  The  more  indoor 
the  life  of  the  population,  the  more  important  ven- 
tilation becomes  to  the  public  health.  Who  but 
the  physician  and  surgeon  can  teach  disinfection 
and  cleanliness  in  the  treatment  of  contagious  dis- 
eases, or  impress  the  population  with  the  need  of 
separating  healthy  children  or  adults  from  those 
afflicted  with  tuberculosis  or  other  chronic  conta- 
gion I  Who  else  is  to  object  to  damp  cellars  filled 
with  organic  rubbish,  to  bad  cooking  and  ill-chosen 
diet,  and  to  all  the  manifold  interior  decorations 
with  which  houses  are  made  more  unsanitary? 
Who  else  can  instruct  the  community  in  school 
hygiene,  in  the  imperative  need  of  thorough  clean- 
liness throughout  school  buildings,  of  effective 
ventilation,  of  good  privies,  clean  books,  strong 
light,  and  furniture  adapted  to  the  sizes  of  the 
pupils?  Who  else  is  to  teach  inexperienced 
mothers  that  nothing  but  the  most  painstaking 
cleanliness  can  prevent  the  nursing-bottle  from 
becoming  a  regular  culture-apparatus  for  micro- 
organisms? 

There  is  an  infinite  amount  of  teaching  to  be 
done  in  regard  to  all  these  subjects,  and  the  medi- 
cal profession  are,  in  many  communities,  the  only 
available  teachers.  In  order  to  teach  effectively 
the  profession  needs  to  be  better  trained  than  it 

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Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

now  is  in  the  ordinary  methods  of  influence  — 
trained,  that  is,  to  a  better  power  of  persuasive 
writing  and  speaking,  and  to  the  habitual  exer- 
cise of  that  authority  which  should  accompany 
recognized  knowledge  and  disinterestedness. 

The  public  does  not  use  its  imagination  suf- 
ficiently with  regard  to  the  future  of  preventive 
medicine.  Leprosy  and  smallpox  have  been  mea- 
surably conquered;  it  has  proved  possible  to  ex- 
clude cholera  and  yellow  fever ;  and  yet  the  public 
is  not  impatient  for  the  conquest  of  every  other 
infectious  and  contagious  disease,  and  often  not 
willing  to  provide  the  necessary  means  of  deliver- 
ance from  these  evils.  Some  of  the  most  intelli- 
gent communities  refuse  to  establish  public  disin- 
fecting stations.  Bacteriological  laboratories  are 
few  and  far  between,  when  they  should  be  every- 
where accessible.  Pure  water-supplies  have  di- 
minished typhoid  fever  in  urban  populations,  but 
the  rural  populations,  through  ignorance,  still 
suffer  disproportionately  from  this  preventable 
scourge.  The  faith  and  hope  of  the  medical  pro- 
fession should  arouse  the  public  from  this  lethargy, 
and  redeem  it  from  this  destructive  ignorance  and 
incredulity;  but  that  faith  and  hope  need  to  be 
expressed  with  power. 

By  the  laws  of  Massachusetts  and  many  other 
States,  an  important  duty  is  placed  upon  physi- 
cians, in  that  they  may  be  called  on  at  any  time 
to  testify  to  the  existence  of  mental  disease  in 
persons  whom  it  is  proposed  to  commit  to  asylums. 
The  first  Massachusetts  law  which  recognized  that 

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Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

insanity  was  a  disease,  the  diagnosis  of  which 
required  medical  knowledge,  was  passed  only 
about  fifty  years  ago,  namely,  in  1844;  and  the 
existing  laws  concerning  the  recognition  of  in- 
sanity and  the  treatment  of  insane  persons  are  of 
much  later  date.  Insanity  being  an  increasing 
evil,  physicians  have  greater  and  greater  need  to 
understand  its  complex  and  elusive  symptoms, 
that  they  may  bear  with  honor  the  responsibilities 
the  law  imposes  on  them.  In  regard  to  all  the 
defective  classes  —  lunatics,  criminals,  drunkards, 
idiots,  prostitutes,  and  paupers  —  society  must  be 
guided  to  wise  palliative  and  remedial  measures 
by  highly  educated,  sympathetic,  and  public-spirited 
physicians.  Experience  shows  that  religious  or 
philanthropic  enthusiasm  cannot  deal  effectively 
with  these  hideous  social  evils,  unless  controlled 
and  guided  by  the  physician's  knowledge  of  their 
causes  and  sources,  and  of  the  preventives  and 
remedies  for  them.  The  medical  profession  is  here 
invading  what  has  been  the  province  of  the  church, 
and  will  need  for  the  work  not  only  the  medical 
knowledge  and  skill  which  the  church  has  never 
possessed,  but  the  personal  consecration  and  devo- 
tion which  the  church  has  often  commanded. 

Thoroughly  educated  physicians  are  needed  for 
public  sanitary  duties.  The  local  boards  of  health 
should  be  able  to  secure  the  services  of  the  best 
local  practitioners,  and  such  services  should  be 
paid  for  by  the  public ;  for  it  is  unreasonable  that 
the  profession  which  makes  its  living  by  tending 
the  sick  should  be  expected  to  labor  gratuitously 

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Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

to  prevent  sickness.  In  serving  on  boards  of 
health  physicians  would  be  brought  into  intimate 
and  influential  relations  with  the  other  members 
of  these  boards, — lawyers,  engineers,  manufactur- 
ers, and  merchants, —  and  through  these  boards  of 
mixed  membership  would  exercise  on  legislatures 
and  the  public  a  much  stronger  influence  than 
they  could  exercise  by  themselves. 

State  medicine  has  many  objects  in  view.  It 
aims  not  only  to  protect  the  public  health,  but 
also  to  increase  it.  In  state  medicine  individual- 
ism is  impracticable,  for  it  is  impossible  for  the 
individual  to  protect  himself.  The  social  coopera- 
tion, which  in  our  days  the  state  alone  can  en- 
force, is  needed  to  promote  security  against  disease 
and  progress  toward  better  average  health  and 
longer  life.  To  take  all  possible  precautions 
against  the  spread  of  infectious  diseases  is  simply 
an  act  of  good  citizenship.  Nothing  but  medical 
supervision  will  accomplish  the  objects  of  state 
medicine ;  and  there  are  no  agents  so  effective  as 
physicians  to  spread  through  all  classes  of  the 
community  an  educated  sense  of  sanitary  decency. 
Only  the  state  can  guard  against  dirty  milk,  cor- 
rupted water-supplies,  impure  ice,  adulterated 
drugs,  spoilt  meat  and  fruit,  and  filthy  and  over- 
crowded tenements.  Only  the  state  can  enforce 
the  isolation  of  cases  of  contagious  disease,  the 
suppression  of  epidemics,  and  the  exclusion  of 
pestilences  like  cholera  and  yellow  fever.  In  ex- 
ercising such  control  the  state  needs  every  aid 
which  medical  experts  in  chemistry,  bacteriology, 

363 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

and  comparative  pathology  can  place  at  its  dis- 
posal. The  medical  profession  itself  hardly  recog- 
nizes as  yet  how  great  promise  there  is  in  the 
further  study  of  the  connections  between  diseases 
in  animals  and  in  man  —  connections  which  small- 
pox, scarlatina  in  cows,  tuberculosis  in  men  and 
animals,  and  diphtheria  already  illustrate.  Not 
even  the  state  —  that  is,  a  single  state  or  nation  — 
can  deal  effectively  with  such  a  problem  as  the 
suppression  of  cholera  or  yellow  fever.  That  is 
an  international  problem.  The  evils  which  the 
social  and  gregarious  instincts  of  men  create,  by 
inducing  the  modern  crowding  into  cities,  must  be 
socially  remedied;  and  the  most  effective  force 
which  society  can  exert  to  this  end  is  the  influence 
of  the  highly  trained  medical  officer.  Every  phy- 
sician should  be  a  medical  philanthropist  and 
missionary,  zealous  to  disseminate  knowledge  of 
public  hygiene.  The  medical  profession,  therefore, 
needs  not  only  full  knowledge  of  the  history  and 
functions  of  state  medicine,  but  the  intellectual 
and  moral  powers  which  will  enable  it  to  serve  the 
state  in  these  matters.  These  powers  —  particu- 
larly the  powers  of  speech  and  writing  which 
would  give  the  profession  influence  with  the  mass 
of  the  population  —  come  through  early  training 
and  practice  under  guidance. 

The  trusted  physician  sees  intimately  many 
classes  of  society,  whether  he  live  in  the  country 
or  the  city.  In  the  city  he  sees  the  well-to-do  in 
their  houses,  and  the  poor  at  the  hospitals  and  dis- 
pensaries.   In  the  country  he  visits  all  the  differ- 

364 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

ent  kinds  of  people  in  the  town.  The  experienced 
physician  is  familiar  with  the  causes  of  poverty 
and  misery,  and  he  is  equally  familiar  with  the 
ill  effects  of  wealth  and  ease  unaccompanied  by 
mental  and  spiritual  cultivation.  He  can  recog- 
nize the  socially  normal  and  the  socially  abnormal, 
and  distinguish  unerringly  between  them.  In  the 
city  he  knows  the  evils  which  result  from  crowded 
tenements  and  dark,  ill- ventilated  working-places. 
In  the  country  he  knows  all  about  the  wet  cellars 
in  which  decaying  fruits  and  vegetables  are 
stored,  the  bad  cooking,  and  the  careless  disposi- 
tion of  the  household  sewage  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground  near  the  dwelling.  He  should  be  the  best 
adviser  on  all  social  defenses  against  the  physical 
evils  which  the  greed,  ignorance,  or  carelessness  of 
individuals  inflicts  on  the  community;  on  the 
building  of  hospitals,  large  or  small,  in  city  or 
country ;  and  on  the  training  of  competent  nurses, 
whether  for  hospital  or  family  service.  The  phy- 
sician should  be  the  chief  defender  of  society 
against  the  superstitions  which  still  prevail  and 
the  impostures  which  still  thrive.  His  training 
being  essentially  the  training  of  the  naturalist,  he 
should  be  the  defender  of  the  community  against 
all  forms  of  unreason.  If  the  physician  have  the 
needed  persuasive  force,  no  one  can  defend  society  so 
effectually  as  he  against  those  unreasonable  persons 
who  are  constantly  protesting  against  dissection, 
vaccination,  and  vivisection ;  for  no  one  can  under 
stand  so  well  as  the  physician  the  benefits  which 
these  processes  have  conferred  upon  the  human  race. 

365 


Medical  Education  of  tbe  Future 

There  is  another  important  topic,  to  which  the 
attention  of  the  medical  profession  has  been  given 
spasmodically,  but  not  with  the  effectiveness  which 
might  have  been  expected.  I  mean  the  legislative 
control  of  medical  practice.  So  long  as  diagnosis 
depended  on  guessing,  or  divining,  or  on  a  natural 
insight  of  which  tho  seer  could  give  no  definite  ac- 
count, there  may  have  been  some  excuse  for  the 
absence  of  a  law  intended  to  insure  the  common 
people  against  ignorant  physicians ;  but  now  that 
the  means  of  diagnosis  and  prevention  have  be- 
come definite,  the  state  may  reasonably  require 
every  practitioner  to  know  how  to  use  them.  The 
ignorant  physician  spreads  diphtheria  and  scarlet 
fever  simply  because  he  cannot  recognize  them. 
Now  that  we  have  definite  means  of  diagnosis, 
treatment,  and  prevention,  which  only  education 
can  give  knowledge  and  command  of,  it  is  fair  — 
indeed,  it  is  imperative  —  that  the  state  should 
require  of  all  practitioners  a  competent  training. 
Some  progress  has  been  made  in  this  subject  dur- 
ing the  past  twenty  years,  but  much  remains  to 
be  done. 

Lastly,  the  physician  needs  thorough  education, 
that  he  may  hold  his  own  in  public  estimation  with 
other  professional  men  who  undergo  a  prolonged 
and  vigorous  preparatory  training.  Social  power 
and  standing  come  with  recognized  cultivation; 
and  public  confidence  is  given  to  men  who  are  be- 
lieved to  seek  truth  for  truth's  sake,  holding  them- 
selves free  from  the  influence  of  inherited  dogmas, 
consecrated  phrases,  and  preconceived    opinions 

366 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

concerning  the  desirable  results  of    current   in- 
quiries. 

I  hope  I  have  said  enough  to  satisfy  my  hearers 
that  the  opportunities  and  potencies  of  modern 
medical  practice  are  so  new  and  vast  that  an  am- 
pler education  is  needed  by  the  practitioner.  How 
is  this  education  to  be  obtained  ?  The  four  years^ 
course  at  the  Harvard  Medical  School,  and  at  all 
other  good  medical  schools,  is  completely  filled 
with  various  instruction  and  practical  exercises. 
No  more  can  be  done  by  the  student  in  those  four 
years  than  is  done.  Undoubtedly  all  the  teaching 
can  be  indefinitely  improved,  and  the  laboratory 
processes  can  be  made  more  economical  of  time 
and  effort;  but  no  significant  additions  can  be 
made  to  the  amount  of  the  work  done  by  the  stu- 
dents in  those  years.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
highly  inexpedient  that  the  age  at  which  students 
on  the  average  graduate  in  medicine  should  be 
raised.  The  young  men  going  out  into  hospitals 
and  practice  are  quite  old  enough  already — in- 
deed, they  are  too  old ;  for  the  earning  of  a  liveli- 
hood is  too  long  deferred,  as  are  also  marriage  and 
family  life.  Whither  turn,  then,  to  achieve  the 
great  improvement  in  medical  education  which  is 
absolutely  indispensable  for  the  future  I  We  must 
turn  to  the  period  of  school  and  college  life  —  to 
the  period  which  extends  from  the  age  of  six  to 
the  age  of  twenty-one.  Here  it  is  that  the  enlarged 
education  required  by  the  physician  is  to  be  pro- 
cured; and  here  it  is  that  the  influence  of  physi- 
cians is  needed  to  improve  the  course  of  public 

367 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

education.  In  the  first  place,  the  youth  who  is  to 
be  a  physician  must  use  well  his  school-time  from 
six  to  eighteen,  and  then  go  through  college  or 
scientific  school;  and,  in  the  second  place,  school, 
college,  and  scientific  school  all  need  to  be  im- 
proved, so  that  the  naturalist  mind  may  have  a 
fair  chance  in  them.  In  the  grammar  schools  and 
secondary  schools  of  our  country  much  time  is 
wasted  through  repetitions  and  reviews,  and  exag- 
gerations of  grammar,  arithmetic,  and  political 
geography.  That  time  must  be  saved.  Subjects 
important  in  the  early  training  of  persons  who  are 
to  be  physicians  —  such  as  the  elements  of  natural 
science  —  are  often  omitted,  to  the  injury  not  only 
of  that  class  of  pupils,  but  of  all  the  children.  In 
some  of  the  best  secondary  schools  an  unreason- 
able proportion  of  the  time  is  given  to  foreign  lan- 
guages. And,  finally,  there  is  lack  of  connection 
between  the  secondary  schools  and  the  coUeges 
and  scientific  schools,  the  requirements  for  admis- 
sion to  the  latter  not  matching  the  graduation  re- 
quirements for  the  former.  For  the  present  state 
of  things  the  medical  profession  itself  is  somewhat 
responsible.  So  long  as  medical  schools  had  no 
requirements  for  admission  they  sanctioned  the 
idea  that  a  young  man  whose  education  had  been 
neglected  up  to  his  twentieth  year  could  then  turn 
to  medicine  as  a  profession,  and  expect  to  be  well 
trained  for  it;  so  long  as  American  society  was 
in  the  rough,  elementary,  pioneering  stage,  physi- 
cians of  that  crude  sort  had  their  place,  and  a  few 
of  them  became  ultimately  competent  through  the 

368 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

stress  of  actual  practice ;  but  that  day  is  past, 
and  with  it  the  old  attitude  of  medical  schools  to- 
ward school  and  college  education  should  become  a 
thing  of  the  past.  The  medical  profession  should 
insist  that  botany,  zoology,  chemistry,  and  physics 
receive  due  attention  in  elementary  and  secondary 
schools,  and  that  English,  both  spoken  and  writ- 
ten, receive  much  more  attention.  They  should 
insist  that  the  elective  system  be  so  far  developed 
in  colleges  and  scientific  schools  that  in  those  in- 
stitutions the  intending  physician  should  be  able 
to  follow  ardently  and  far  the  subjects  preliminary 
to  his  chosen  profession,  and  that  the  youth  who 
naturally  tends  to  observational  subjects  should 
have  a  fair  chance  to  follow  his  bent.  It  is  unne- 
cessary to  say  that  the  additions  made  to  the 
school  studies,  and  the  freedom  of  choice  in  col- 
leges and  scientific  schools,  would  be  for  the  ad- 
vantage of  all  pupils ;  for  all  need  at  school  the 
natural-science  studies,  and  the  developed  study 
of  English  and  of  argumentative  composition, 
while  all  would  profit  in  the  higher  institutions  by 
the  abandonment  of  prescribed  curricula.  Phy- 
sicians should  be  ready  to  serve  on  school  com- 
mittees and  boards  of  trustees,  in  order  to  give 
practical  effect  to  their  opinions  on  this  subject. 
The  clerical  profession  has  been  long  dominant  in 
education.  It  is  high  time  that  physicians  took  a 
hand  in  that  great  public  concern.  They  should 
fight  at  every  turn  the  idea  that  there  is  more  cul- 
tivation to  be  got  from  subjects  which  have  no 
application  in  daily  life  than  from  those  which  are 

24  .       369 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

capable  of  application.  They  should  urge  medical 
schools  to  raise  their  own  requirements  for  admis- 
sion. It  is  a  great  improvement  which  has  lately 
been  wrought  in  the  State  of  New  York,  whereby 
some  academic  subjects  are  required  as  preliminary 
to  medical  education.  It  was  a  great  example 
which  the  Johns  Hopkins  University  set  us  all  by 
demanding  a  degree  for  admission  to  its  new  medi- 
cal school.  It  is  a  step  in  the  right  direction  which 
the  Harvard  Medical  School  has  just  taken  in  giv- 
ing notice  that  in  and  after  the  year  1901  a  degree 
in  arts,  philosophy,  science,  or  medicine  will  be 
demanded  for  admission  to  the  school.  Nothing 
short  of  the  period  from  six  to  twenty-five  will 
hereafter  suffice  for  adequately  preparing  a  young 
man  for  medical  practice.  We  want  the  whole  of 
that  period  well  filled  and  well  used.  We  want  it 
for  the  honor  and  dignity  and  serviceableness  of 
the  profession  itself.  We  want  it  also  for  the  just 
furtherance  of  the  work  which  the  community  may 
reasonably  expect  of  the  profession. 

The  medical  profession  has  before  it  an  entran- 
cing prospect  of  usefulness  and  honor.  It  offers  to 
young  men  the  largest  opportunities  for  disinter- 
ested, devoted,  and  heroic  service.  The  times  are 
past  when  men  had  to  go  to  war  to  give  evidence 
of  endurance,  or  courage,  or  capacity  to  think 
quickly  and  well  under  pressure  of  responsibility 
and  danger.  The  fields  open  to  the  physician  and 
surgeon  now  give  ample  scope  for  these  lofty 
qualities. 

The  times  are  past  when  the  church  alone  asked 
370 


Medical  Education  of  the  Future 

men  to  devote  themselves  patiently,  disinterestedly, 
and  bravely  to  the  service  of  their  fellow-men. 
The  medical  profession  now  exhibits  in  highest 
degree  these  virtues.  Our  nation  sometimes  seems 
tempted  to  seek  in  war  —  that  stupid  and  horrible 
savagery  —  for  other  greatness  than  can  come  from 
vast  natural  resources,  prosperous  industries,  and 
expanding  commerce.  The  pursuits  of  peace  seem 
to  pall,  for  lack  of  risk  and  adventure.  Would 
it  might  turn  its  energies  and  its  longing  for  patri- 
otic and  heroic  emotion  into  the  immense  fields  of 
beneficent  activity  which  sanitation,  preventive 
medicine,  and  comparative  medicine  offer  it !  There 
are  spiritual  and  physical  triumphs  to  be  won  in 
these  fields  infinitely  higher  than  any  which  war 
can  offer,  for  they  will  be  triumphs  of  construction 
and  preservation,  not  of  destruction  and  ruin. 
They  will  be  triumphs  of  good  over  evil,  and  of 
happiness  over  misery. 


371 


A  WIDER  RANGE  OF  ELECTIVES  IN 
COLLEGE  ADMISSION  REQUIREMENTS 

The  Harvard  Teachers'  Association,  March  7,  1896 
"  Educational  Review,"  May,  1896 


24* 


A  WIDER  RANGE  OF  ELECTIVES 

IN  COLLEGE  ADMISSION 

REaUIREMENTS 


AS  usual,  it  is  necessary  to  define  the  subject  a 
jLjL  little.  "A  wider  range  of  electives  in  college  ad- 
mission requirements."  What  field  are  we  thinking 
of  when  we  state  this  subject  ?  If  we  mean  the  Uni- 
ted States,  the  range  of  electives  is  already  very 
large.  Take,  for  example,  the  requirements  for 
admission  to  the  Leland  Stanford  University. 
Twenty  subjects  are  named,  of  very  different  char- 
acter and  extent,  and  the  candidate  may  present 
any  ten  out  of  the  twenty.  Botany  counts  just  as 
much  as  Latin.  There  is  a  wide  range  of  options 
at  admission  to  the  University  of  Michigan,  with 
its  numerous  courses  leading  to  numerous  degrees ; 
that  is,  there  is  a  wide  range  of  subjects  permissi- 
ble to  a  candidate  who  is  thinking  of  presenting 
himself  for  some  one  of  its  many  degrees.  If  we 
look  nearer  home,  we  find  in  so  conservative  an 
institution  as  Dartmouth  College  that  there  are 
three  different  degrees  offered,  with  three  different 
assortments  of  admission  requirements,  and  three 

375 


A  Wider  Range  of  Electives  in 

different  courses  within  the  college.  I  noticed  that 
at  the  last  commencement  there  were  forty-one 
degrees  of  the  old-fashioned  sort  and  twenty-seven 
degrees  of  the  newer  sorts  given  by  Dartmouth 
College.  Here  in  Harvard  we  have  had  for  many 
years  a  considerable  range  of  electives  in  the  admis- 
sion examinations,  particularly  in  what  we  call  the 
advanced  requirements.  We  therefore  need  to  hmit 
our  subject  a  little  by  saying  that  we  are  thinking  of 
a  wider  range  of  admission  electives  in  the  Eastern 
and  Middle  State  colleges,  the  range  of  electives 
farther  west  being  already  large  in  many  cases. 

Before  1870,  in  New  England  and  the  Middle 
States,  one  might  say  that  the  elements  of  Latin, 
Greek,  and  mathematics  covered  the  entire  range 
of  admission  subjects.  To  be  sure,  there  was  an 
additional  subject  called  ancient  history,  but  it 
held  a  very  small  place  among  the  requirements 
for  admission  and  in  the  school  programmes,  many 
excellent  schools  preparing  their  pupils  to  meet 
that  requirement  in  five  or  six  weeks,  just  before 
the  examination  for  admission  to  college.  English 
has  now  won  a  good  place  in  school  programmes 
and  in  college  requirements  for  admission.  What  a 
marvel  it  is  that  it  never  had  any  place  at  all  down 
to  1873,  when  it  first  appeared  in  the  Harvard  re- 
quirements! To-day  we  recognize  that  French 
and  German  have  acquired  standing-room  among 
admission  requirements.  At  Harvard  modern 
languages  are  not  admitted  instead  of  ancient 
languages;  but  at  so  conservative  an  institution 
as  Williams,  and  also  at  Tufts  College,  the  modern 

376 


College  Admission  Requirements 

languages  may  be  substituted  for  Greek.  Science 
has  thus  far  obtained  but  a  feeble  hold.  We  think 
the  requirements  in  science  are  more  substantial  at 
Harvard  than  anywhere  else.  We  have  been  much 
encouraged  by  the  rapid  progress  of  the  schools  in 
meeting  the  Harvard  requirements  in  physics;  for 
already  a  large  majority  of  candidates  offer  the  ex- 
perimental course  in  physics,  and  not  the  book 
course.  Still,  when  President  Low  was  organizing 
six  conferences  on  the  requirements  for  admission 
to  colleges  in  New  England  and  the  Middle  States, 
he  did  not  think  it  worth  while  to  have  a  seventh 
conference  on  science,  because  the  institutions 
within  this  territory  give  so  little  attention  to  sci- 
ence as  a  requirement  for  admission,  and  are  so 
divided  as  to  the  nature  of  the  requirement. 

It  seems  as  if  the  time  had  come  when  we  should 
recognize  —  if  not  among  the  prescribed  subjects, 
at  least  among  the  electives  open  to  candidates  who 
present  themselves  for  admission  to  college  —  his- 
tory, science,  and  the  modern  languages,  and  should 
seek  a  definition  of  science  as  a  requirement  for 
admission.  I  regret  very  much  that  science  was 
omitted  from  the  recent  conferences  in  New  York, 
because  it  is  one  of  the  secondary-school  subjects 
that  most  need  to  be  improved.  A  rational  course 
in  science — rational  for  the  schools,  because  it  af- 
fords a  substantial  training  in  observing,  recording, 
and  reasoning,  and  rational  for  the  colleges,  because 
it  affords  sound  preparation  for  further  study  of 
science  during  the  years  of  college  life  —  is  a  great 
desideratum. 

377 


A  Wider  Range  of  Electives  in 

Let  me  say,  in  the  first  place,  what  I  have  often 
said  before,  that  I,  for  one,  have  no  interest  what- 
ever in  new  subjects  for  admission  to  college  which 
are  not  just  as  substantial  and  difficult  as  the  old 
ones.  That  a  subject  should  be  used  as  an  elective 
in  the  admission  examinations  to  colleges  and  uni- 
versities because  it  is  easier  seems  to  me  to  be 
wholly  bad.  That  is  my  objection  to  many  of  the 
requirements  for  admission  at  the  Western  institu- 
tions. In  the  University  of  Michigan,  for  example, 
they  use  subjects  as  admission  requirements  which 
are  treated  in  the  schools  in  a  manner  distinctly 
inferior  to  the  treatment  of  the  old  subjects,  and 
they  admit  to  college,  on  these  comparatively  new 
subjects,  men  and  women  who  have  had  a  training 
inferior  to  that  which  those  who  present  the  old 
subjects  have  received.  That  method,  I  am  sure, 
has  no  interest  for  any  of  us.  What  we  want  are 
new  optional  subjects  which  are  just  as  good  for 
training  and  discipline  as  the  old. 

What  prospect  is  there  that  we  can  get  such  new 
elective  requirements  for  admission  ?  It  seems  to 
me  that  the  teaching  of  modern  languages  in  many 
of  the  schools  represented  here  has  now  reached 
such  a  stage  that  we  may  fairly  say  that  a  training 
in  French  or  German,  or  both,  can  be  given  which 
is  just  as  substantial,  strong,  and  useful  a  training 
as  any  other  that  is  given  in  the  same  period.  Can 
we  say  that  of  any  other  subject  now  proposed  as 
an  elective  requirement?  I  am  afraid  not.  Yet 
there  is  good  hope  for  history.  Within  a  few 
months  a  great  deal  of  progress  has  been  made  in 

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College  Admission  Requirements 

bringing  teachers  of  schools  and  college  professors 
into  harmony  with  regard  to  the  claims  and  uses 
of  that  subject.  Here  at  Harvard  we  have  had  a 
committee  on  requirements  for  admission  at  work 
all  the  year,  which  has  paid  special  attention  to 
history,  and  has  agreed  on  a  judicious  school 
course  in  that  subject.  In  the  New  York  conference 
on  history  an  agreement  was  reached  without  much 
difficulty  in  regard  to  a  thorough  four  years'  school 
course.  I  believe,  therefore,  that  there  is  good  hope 
that  a  substantial  requirement  in  history  can  be 
agreed  upon.  In  regard  to  science,  the  schools  and 
colleges  are  further  from  that  result;  but  some 
progress  of  an  instructive  kind  has  been  made.  At 
Harvard  we  feel  that  the  true  nature  of  a  scientific 
requirement  for  admission  has  been  already  deter- 
mined. It  should  include  laboratory  practice  as 
well  as  lectures  and  recitations,  and  the  original 
note-book  of  the  candidate  should  be  presented  at 
the  college  or  scientific  school  as  evidence  of  the 
nature  of  the  instruction  which  the  candidate  has 
received  at  school.  We  also  think  we  have  learned 
something  useful  with  regard  to  the  kind  of  evi- 
dence which  may  well  come  from  the  master  of  a 
school  concerning  his  pupils'  studies  and  attain- 
ments. We  have  found  that  the  statements  which 
we  require  from  teachers  as  to  the  training  of  their 
pupils  in  physics  have  been  a  useful  kind  of  evi- 
dence, and  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that  evidence 
of  the  same  sort  might  be  advantageously  used  in 
other  departments. 
We  have  a  good  hope,  then,  that  modern  lan- 

379 


A  Wider  Range  of  Electives  in 

guages,  history,  and  science  may  be  added  to  the 
present  requirements  for  admission  at  those  insti- 
tutions where  but  slight  additions  have  thus  far 
been  made  to  the  old  requirements  in  Latin,  Greek, 
and  mathematics;  and  that  these  new  subjects  may 
be  further  extended  and  developed  at  institutions 
where  some  choice  among  equivalent  subjects  is 
already  permitted. 

Making  this  supposition,  what  is  the  first  diffi- 
culty which  presents  itself  with  regard  to  the  man- 
ner of  using  these  new  requirements?  The  first 
difficulty  is  to  determine  the  proper  weight  of  each 
requirement,  new  or  old,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
coefficient  of  each  requirement  in  all  the  various 
combinations  into  which  it  may  enter.  How  shall 
we  determine  what  weight  shall  be  attributed  to 
each  subject  in  comparison  with  every  other  sub- 
ject! In  any  broad  elective  system  no  individual 
can  present  all  the  subjects.  He  must  present  a 
part — say  two  thirds  or  three  fifths — of  the  sub- 
jects. Each  subject,  therefore,  should  have  a  valu- 
ation, or  coefficient,  attached  to  it.  How  much 
shall  each  subject  count  in  the  total  of  an  indi- 
vidual candidate!  Our  method  of  valuing  ad- 
mission subjects  at  Harvard  is,  I  believe,  as  careful 
as  any;  but  we  do  not  pretend  to  have  an  accurate 
method  of  attributing  a  proper  weight  to  each  sub- 
ject. We  have  two-hour  subjects  and  one-hour 
subjects;  that  is,  to  some  subjects  we  give  twice  as 
much  time  at  the  examination  as  to  others,  and 
twice  as  much  weight  in  determining  the  question 
of  admission  or  rejection.    Even  this  rough  valua- 

380 


College  Admission  Requirements 

tion  we  might  find  it  hard  to  justify.  What  should 
be  the  grounds  of  a  just  valuation  of  all  the  sub- 
jects that  can  be  presented  at  admission  examina- 
tions which  include  numerous  options  ? 

That  question  introduces  us  to  a  difficult  in- 
quiry. It  is,  of  course,  not  an  intelligent  method  to 
attribute  a  value  to  each  subject  in  accordance 
with  the  time  devoted  to  the  examination  in  that 
subject.  What  clue  have  we  toward  a  better 
mode  of  determining  the  value  which  ought  to  be 
attributed  to  each  of  these  numerous  electives^ 
when  the  young  men  cannot  present  all  the  per- 
mitted subjects,  and  hardly  three  fifths  of  them^ 
indeed,  if  the  range  is  adequately  widened  f  I  be- 
lieve that  the  best  criterion  for  determining  the 
value  of  each  subject  is  the  time  devoted  to  that 
subject  in  schools  which  have  an  intelligent  pro- 
gramme of  studies.  The  Committee  of  Ten  exam- 
ined the  number  of  subjects  used  in  about  two 
hundred  of  the  best  secondary  schools  in  this 
country,  and  the  time-allotments  for  the  several 
subjects.  They  found  a  great  variety  of  practice 
as  to  both  selection  of  subjects  and  time-allot- 
ments. You  can  hardly  say  that  there  is  an 
accepted  time-allotment  in  these  secondary  schools 
for  any  subject  —  not  even  for  the  old  traditional 
subjects.  The  time-allotments  differ  widely  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  and  even  in  different 
schools  in  the  same  part  of  the  country.  If,  then, 
we  are  to  determine  by  school  time-allotments  the 
valuations  of  the  different  subjects,  prescribed  and 
elective,  which  may  enter  into  admission  examina- 

381 


A  Wider  Range  of  Eledives  in 

tions,  we  must  have  some  sort  of  standard  pro- 
grammes for  secondary  schools.  At  present  I  know 
no  programmes  which  can  answer  that  purpose,  ex- 
cept the  provisional  programmes  of  the  Committee 
of  Ten.  They  may  fairly  be  said  to  be  the  best- 
studied  programmes  now  before  the  country,  and  to 
represent  the  largest  amount  of  professional  con- 
sent, simply  because  they  are  the  result  of  the 
work,  first,  of  ninety  school  and  college  teachers, 
divided  into  nine  different  conferences  by  subject, 
and,  secondly,  of  ten  representative  teachers  com- 
bining and  revising  the  work  of  the  conferences, 
with  careful  reference  to  the  present  condition  of 
American  schools.  These  programmes  seem  to  me, 
therefore,  to  afford  the  most  available  means  of 
determining  the  time-allotment  for  each  subject. 
Since  we  really  cannot  study  the  use  of  a  wider 
range  of  electives  without  examining  this  question 
of  the  value  to  be  attributed  to  each  elective,  you 
will  excuse  me  if  I  go  into  a  little  detail  with  re- 
gard to  the  time-allotment,  and  the  consequent 
value  to  be  attributed  to  each  subject. 

The  selection  of  subjects  made  by  the  Committee 
of  Ten  is,  I  believe,  fairly  representative  of  good 
secondary  schools  in  the  United  States.  There 
are  seventeen  of  these  subjects.  Now,  there  is  not 
as  much  difference  of  time-allotment  among  these 
subjects  as  one  who  approached  the  discussion 
without  a  pretty  wide  survey  of  the  field  would 
imagine.  Latin  has  eighteen  eightieths  of  the 
time  on  these  programmes ;  that  is,  a  student  who 
takes  all  the  Latin  he  can  take  on  that  programme 

382 


College  Admission  Requirements 

of  the  Committee  of  Ten  which  has  the  most  Latin 
will  devote  to  it  eighteen  eightieths  of  the  four 
years.  Greek  has  a  smaller  amount  of  time ;  but  if 
a  student  devotes  to  that  subject  all  the  time  pos- 
sible on  the  classical  programme  of  the  Committee 
of  Ten,  including  the  remark  in  the  note,  he  will 
give  fourteen  eightieths  of  his  four  years  to  Greek. 
English  has  from  eleven  to  seventeen  eightieths  on 
the  different  programmes  of  the  Committee  of  Ten. 
The  largest  amount  of  time  devoted  to  it  on  any 
one  programme  is  seventeen  eightieths,  within  one 
eightieth  of  the  time  devoted  to  Latin.  Algebra, 
geometry,  and  trigonometry  have  together  four- 
teen eightieths,  which  is  the  same  proportion 
that  Greek  has.  German  and  French  have  from 
eleven  eightieths  to  eighteen  eightieths  each ;  that 
is,  the  allotment  to  French  or  German  for  a  youth 
who  takes  all  the  French  he  can  take,  or  all  the 
German  he  can  take,  is  just  the  same  as  that  to 
Latin.  History  does  not  fare  quite  so  well ;  but, 
still,  history  has  from  nine  eightieths  to  fourteen 
eightieths,  being  about  the  allotment  to  Greek. 
Natural-history  subjects  occur  under  the  heads  of 
physical  geography,  botany,  zoology,  and  geology ; 
but  under  the  programmes  of  the  Committee  of  Ten 
a  pupil  cannot  take  both  botany  and  zoology,  be- 
cause these  two  subjects  come  at  the  same  hours. 
An  individual  pupil  can  devote  to  this  group  only 
nine  eightieths  of  his  time  for  four  years,  an  allot- 
ment which  matches  the  minimum  in  history. 
Lastly,  for  physics,  chemistry,  astronomy,  and 
meteorology  the  total  is  the  same  as  for  history 

3^3 


A  Wider  Range  of  Electives  in 

and  for  natural  history,  viz.,  nine  eightieths.  That 
is  the  entire  set  of  subjects.  You  see  that  the 
range  of  time-allotments  is  not  so  great  as  one 
would  imagine  from  a  cursory  examination  of  the 
programmes.  You  may  say  that  the  time-allotments 
range  from  nine  to  eighteen  eightieths,  it  being 
understood  that  the  natural-history  subjects  and 
the  physical-science  subjects  are  grouped.  It  is, 
therefore,  not  hopeless,  by  any  means,  to  attempt 
to  make  a  just  valuation  of  each  of  these  subjects, 
and  groups  of  subjects,  based  upon  time-aUotment. 
The  suggestion  of  some  other  possible  basis  for  a 
proper  valuation  would  be  very  useful ;  for  a  sound 
and  uniform  method  of  valuing  the  different  sub- 
jects which  can  be  presented  at  admission  exami- 
nations will  be  of  great  importance,  if  the  range 
of  elective  subjects  is  to  be  widened.  It  is  absurd, 
I  think,  to  give  the  same  weight  to  algebra,  which 
has  six  eightieths  of  the  time  of  a  pupil  in  four 
years,  and  to  Latin,  which  has  eighteen  eightieths 
of  the  same  period  of  four  years.  Those  two  sub- 
jects should  not  count  alike,  or  even  in  the  ratio 
of  one  to  two.  Neither  should  botany,  with  three 
eightieths,  count  like  English,  with  eighteen  eighti- 
eths of  the  pupil's  time  in  four  years.  In  widening 
the  range  of  elective  requirements  for  admission, 
we  must  avoid  that  sort  of  inaccuracy  and  in- 
justice. 

In  general,  with  regard  to  the  treatment  of  elec- 
tives, in  college  or  before  college,  this  difficulty  of 
determining  relative  values  is  a  serious  one,  which 
has  to  be  studied  carefully  in  order  to  preserve  a 

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College  Admission  Requirements 

just  value  and  significance  for  the  degree  which  is 
the  common  certificate  at  the  close  of  individual 
courses,  made  up,  we  may  say,  of  infinitely  varied 
materials.  In  the  more  limited  problem  of  dealing 
with  electives  at  admission  examinations  the  same 
difficulty  will  present  itself,  unless  we  have  an  intel- 
ligent mode  of  assigning  a  value  to  each  subject. 

I  turn  now  to  another  serious  difficulty  which 
teachers  know  to  exist  in  regard  to  new  subjects  at 
admission  examinations,  and,  indeed,  in  regard  to 
extensions  of  old  subjects.  I  refer  to  the  difficulty 
of  securing  uniform  enforcement  of  the  require- 
ments which  stand  on  paper.  New  subjects  pre- 
sent more  difficulties  than  old  subjects  in  this  re- 
spect, because  in  Latin,  Greek,  and  elementary 
mathematics  generations  of  teachers,  both  in  school 
and  in  college,  have  been  brought  up  to  use  the 
existing  methods  and  materials, —  methods  and 
materials  which  are  better  studied  and  defined  than 
they  are  in  the  new  subjects, —  and  there  is  conse- 
quently a  better  common  standard  of  work.  A 
good  deal  has  been  done  in  New  England  during 
the  last  twenty  years  toward  a  uniform  standard 
of  enforcement  of  Latin  and  Greek  requirements ; 
but  I  think  we  shall  all  recognize  the  fact  that  to 
secure  uniformity  in  the  enforcement  of  new  re- 
quirements will  be  more  difficult  than  it  has  been 
in  regard  to  the  old.  The  isolated  condition  of 
colleges  accounts  in  part  for  these  difficulties. 
Twenty-five  years  ago  the  college  faculties  of  New 
England  were  isolated  to  a  most  extraordinary 
degree.    They  hardly  had  any  opportunities  of  co- 

25  385 


A  Wider  Range  of  Electives  in 

operative  intercourse.  And  within  each  of  those 
faculties  there  were  men  who  had  for  years  con- 
trolled the  admission  papers  in  their  own  subjects. 
An  isolated  faculty,  holding  little  communion  with 
any  other  faculty  or  with  secondary  schools,  and 
within  the  faculty  a  single  man  writing  for  years  the 
papers  for  admission  examinations  in  a  given  sub- 
ject, and  probably  examining  the  answers,  and  that 
single  man  at  Dartmouth  holding  a  different  view 
from  the  corresponding  man  at  Yale  or  Harvard  — 
from  such  conditions  there  could  not  but  result  a 
great  difficulty  for  school-teachers  with  regard  to 
the  standard  of  enforcement.  By  cooperative  ef- 
fort through  such  organizations  as  the  New  Eng- 
land Association  of  Colleges  and  Preparatory 
Schools,  and  by  conference  methods,  some  of  these 
difficulties  have  been  removed;  but  we  shall  not 
get  a  satisfactory  use  of  a  wider  range  of  electives 
in  admission  requirements  until  this  particular  dif- 
ficulty, which  results  from  isolation  and  lack  of  co- 
operation among  colleges,  has  been  successfully 
dealt  with.  A  year  ago  last  November  I  made  to 
the  Association  of  Colleges  in  New  England  the 
suggestion  that  those  colleges  organize  a  board  of 
examiners,  which  should  conduct  all  over  the  coun- 
try admission  examinations,  the  certified  results  of 
which  should  be  good  at  all  the  New  England  col- 
leges, and  good  anywhere  else  where  the  certificates 
of  the  board  would  be  taken ;  and  I  detailed  to  the 
assembled  representatives  of  the  colleges  the  gen- 
eral method  that  could  be  followed.  Several  uni- 
versities in  this  country  have  already  acquired 

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College  Admission  Requirements 

experience  in  conducting  examinations  at  many 
points  scattered  over  the  United  States,  and  they 
have  proved  that  there  is  no  mechanical  difficulty 
at  all  in  carrying  out  that  method.  There  is 
enough  experience  now  to  demonstrate  that  exami* 
nations  might  be  conducted  at  two  or  three  hun- 
dred points  in  the  United  States,  by  a  common 
board  of  examiners,  with  the  utmost  ease,  and,  on 
the  whole,  a  great  saving  of  money  to  the  candi- 
dates, even  though  a  fee  of  five  to  ten  dollars 
should  be  charged  each  candidate  for  the  examina- 
tion. I  hardly  think  that  the  proposition  was  re- 
garded by  the  Association  of  Colleges  as  one  to  be 
seriously  taken  up.  At  any  rate,  it  was  not  taken 
up.  Two  or  three  times  lately  I  have  made  similar 
suggestions  at  teachers'  meetings.  I  offered  the 
same  suggestion  at  the  recent  meeting  of  the 
Schoolmasters'  Association  of  New  York  city  and 
the  vicinity ;  and  President  Low  said  at  the  meet- 
ing that  his  first  impression  of  the  plan  was  favor- 
able, and  that  he  should  be  glad  to  enter  into  a 
conference  on  the  subject.  That  is  an  encouraging 
sign,  because  President  Low  is  a  man  of  large  in- 
fluence, and  singularly  fitted  to  promote  coopera- 
tive enterprises.  I  think,  therefore,  that  we  may 
be  approaching  the  adoption  of  some  such  method. 
It  need  not  be  a  New  England  method.  Any  group 
of  six  to  twelve  colleges  or  universities  in  this 
country  could  organize  the  scheme  for  the  whole 
country,  the  board  appointing  the  writers  of  ques- 
tion papers  and  the  readers  of  answer  papers.  The 
preparation  of  each  question  paper  would  be  com- 

387 


A  Wider  Range  of  Electives  in 

mitted  to  a  group  of  men,  not  to  one  man,  and  this 
group  would  be  taken  from  various  institutions. 
The  board  would  see  to  the  mechanical  preparation 
of  the  papers,  and  to  all  administrative  details, 
and  would  fix  the  places  where  the  examinations 
should  be  held.  If  six  universities  united  to  do 
this,  they  would  not  use  their  own  men  only ;  they 
would  select  their  examiners  from  a  large  variety  of 
colleges  and  scientific  schools.  The  results  would 
be  tabulated,  so  as  to  exhibit  the  record  of  every 
individual,  just  as  the  results  of  the  numerous  ex- 
aminations conducted  by  Oxford  and  Cambridge 
at  many  centers  in  England  are  tabulated.  The 
result  for  each  individual  could  be  used  at  any  col- 
lege in  the  country  for  what  it  was  worth  in  its 
eyes.  The  scheme  would  not  interfere  in  the  least 
with  the  individuality  of  a  school  or  college.  The 
examinations  would  cover  a  larger  range  of  studies 
than  most  schools  could  afford  to  supply ;  but  any 
school  could  decide  to  what  subjects  it  would  de- 
vote itself,  and  any  college  or  university  could  say 
what  subjects  it  would  absolutely  require,  and 
what  range  of  electives  should  be  permitted  to  its 
candidates  for  admission.  It  would,  of  course,  be 
true  in  the  future,  as  in  the  past,  that  the  different 
colleges  and  universities  would  make  different  de- 
mands. One  college  would  demand  more  subjects 
than  another ;  but,  subject  by  subject,  the  require- 
ments would  be  the  same  on  paper,  and  they  would 
be  enforced  by  a  common  board.  I  speak  of  this 
matter  now  because  I  feel  sure  that  we  cannot  deal 

388 


College  Admission  Requirements 

satisfactorily  with  a  new  set  of  requirements  for 
admission  unless  we  imagine  from  the  start  that 
we  are  going  to  get  a  more  uniform  method  of  en- 
forcement than  has  ever  obtained  in  this  country, 
even  with  regard  to  the  old  subjects.  I  think  the 
teachers  here  present  will  see  that  this  method 
would  emancipate  them  from  many  annoyances, 
restrictions,  and  personal  idiosyncrasies  which  now 
seriously  affect  admission  examinations. 

These,  then,  are  the  three  points  that  I  wish 
to  bring  to  your  attention:  first,  that  we  may 
expect  a  large  addition  to  the  old-fashioned  re- 
quirements for  admission;  next,  that  we  need  a 
mode  of  attaching  to  the  new  subjects  severally, 
as  to  the  old,  a  just  valuation  for  admission  pur- 
poses ;  and,  thirdly,  that  we  shall  need  some  method 
capable  of  securing  tolerably  uniform  enforcement 
of  the  new  and  old  requirements. 

Let  me  add  a  few  words  with  regard  to  the 
interests  of  the  colleges  and  universities  and  of  the 
country  in  this  matter.  We  have  seen  of  late 
years  a  large  introduction  of  the  elective  system 
into  secondary  schools.  Few  teachers  seem  to 
appreciate  the  extent  of  this  introduction.  One 
reason  for  the  common  failure  to  appreciate  this 
phenomenon  is  that  the  phrase  "  elective  system  " 
is  not  generally  applied  to  secondary  schools. 
Nevertheless,  there  actually  exists  in  American 
secondary  schools  a  very  important  amount  of 
election  of  subjects,  or  groups  of  subjects.  As  a 
result  of  this  election  of  subjects,  or  of  groups  of 
25*  389 


A  Wider  Range  of  Electives  in 

subjects,  we  find  that  young  men  and  women  are 
directed  upon  our  colleges  in  different  ways; 
that  is,  candidates  for  admission  to  colleges  have 
really  pursued  different  studies  on  different  courses, 
to  a  great  degree,  while  at  school.  The  colleges 
have  been  trying  to  meet  this  condition  of  things 
by  setting  up  different  degrees  to  represent  the 
next  stage  of  education,  ordinarily  called  the  higher 
education;  and  we  have  therefore  witnessed  in 
this  country  a  multiplication  of  degrees,  all  of 
which  represent  college  or  scientific-school  edu- 
cation. Some  universities  use  the  four  degrees 
called  Bachelor  of  Arts,  Bachelor  of  Science, 
Bachelor  of  Philosophy,  and  Bachelor  of  Letters. 
Many  universities  and  colleges  use  two  or  three  of 
these  titles.  In  this  process  a  grave  evil  has  come 
into  both  schools  and  colleges,  because  the  new 
courses  in  the  secondary  schools  have  generally 
been  inferior  to  the  old  or  classical  course;  and, 
moreover,  the  new  degrees  in  the  colleges  and  uni- 
versities generally  represent  an  inferior  attainment 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  either  at  school  or  within 
the  college  or  university  itself,  or  sometimes  in 
both  places.  It  is  a  great  object  to  put  an  end  to 
these  inferior  courses,  both  in  schools  and  in  col- 
leges. We  want  all  the  variety  which  is  now 
permitted,  but  we  want  it  to  become  a  variety  of 
equal  things,  and  not  a  variety  which  includes 
some  large  subjects  and  many  small  ones,  some  sub- 
jects long  and  faithfully  pursued,  and  others  pur- 
sued only  for  a  short  time  and  in  a  superficial 
way.    The  courses  now  inferior  should  be  leveled 

390 


College  Admission  Requirements 

Tip.  The  several  degrees  now  in  use  ought  to  be 
made  to  indicate  tolerably  equal  attainments, 
though  various  —  a  standard  of  education,  train- 
ing, and  discipline  approximately  uniform,  al- 
though the  elements  of  the  training  or  discipline 
have  been  different. 


391 


AN  URBAN  UNIVERSITY 

Dedication  of  the  New  Grounds  of  Columbia  University, 
May,  1896 


AN  URBAN  UNIVERSITY 


ONLY  six  years  ago,  near  the  close  of  the  fes- 
tivities which  marked  the  happy  inaugura- 
tion of  President  Low,  I  ventured  to  say  that 
Columbia's  sister  universities  ardently  wished  she 
might  acquire,  in  the  common  interests  of  all  learn- 
ing and  philanthropy,  much  greater  endowments 
than  she  then  possessed,  and  particularly  might 
get  grounds  and  buildings  worthy  of  the  principal 
seat  of  learning  in  this  rich  and  splendid  mart. 
The  experience  of  other  institutions  seemed  to  me 
to  indicate  that  the  new  buildings  might  best  be 
obtained  through  gifts  from  rich  and  sagacious 
men  of  good  will.  In  the  short  interval  between 
that  day  and  this,  the  combined  influence  and 
efforts  of  president,  trustees,  faculties,  and  alumni, 
and  the  shining  example  of  President  Low,  have 
brought  much  to  pass ;  and  it  is  my  privilege  to- 
day to  bring  you  the  hearty  congratulations  of 
the  sister  universities  on  the  acquisition  of  this 
spacious  site,  of  these  rising  buildings,  and  of  nu- 
merous important  additions  to  the  material  and  in- 

395 


An  Urban  University 

tellectual  resources  of  the  University.  To  the 
governors  of  universities  which  occupy  hundreds 
of  acres  of  land  in  comparatively  open  towns  or 
cities,  even  this  noble  site  seems  to  offer  but  a 
closely  restricted  number  of  opportunities  for 
those  public-spirited  persons  who  may  reasonably 
aspire  to  erect  buildings  for  the  University.  These 
precious  opportunities  for  doing  some  perpetual 
good  will  soon  be  seized  upon  by  a  fortunate  few 
who  shall,  in  this  nick  of  time,  both  feel  the  desire 
and  possess  the  means  to  serve  their  kind  in  a 
rarely  delightful  and  enduring  way,  the  benefi- 
cence of  which  has  neither  drawback  nor  alloy. 

I  congratulate  the  city,  too,  that  its  chief  uni- 
versity is  to  have  here  a  setting  commensurate 
with  the  worth  of  its  intellectual  and  spiritual 
influence.  No  American  community  can  profit  so 
much  from  the  presence  of  a  strong  and  progres- 
sive university  as  can  this  great  city,  at  once 
magnificent  and  squalid,  majestic  and  ignoble,  at 
once  Freedom's  pride  and  Freedom's  reproach. 
Universities  are  no  longer  merely  students  of  the 
past,  meditative  observers  of  the  present,  or  critics 
at  safe  distance  of  the  actual  struggles  and  strifes 
of  the  working  world.  They  are  active  partici- 
pants in  all  the  fundamental,  progressive  work  of 
modern  society.  By  spoken  word,  by  pen  and 
pencil,  through  laboratories,  libraries,  and  collec- 
tions, through  courts,  churches,  schools,  charities, 
and  hospitals,  they  promote  the  forward  movement 
of  society,  and  help  to  open  its  onward  way.  Co- 
lumbia University,  in  its  recent  history,  amply  illus- 

396 


An  Urban  University 

trates  this  truth ;  for  it  has  contributed  effectively 
to  the  advancement  of  architecture,  pedagogy, 
economics,  political  science,  sociology,  chemistry, 
physics,  engineering,  and  biology,  in  all  which 
subjects  the  city  of  New  York,  and  the  country  at 
large,  have  interests  of  incalculable  magnitude. 
Through  their  perennial  interest  in  philosophy  and 
ethics,  and  in  sacred  and  profane  literature  and  his- 
tory, universities  enlarge  and  sweeten  the  inherited 
conceptions  of  the  age  in  regard  to  religion  and 
family  life,  and  bring  about  modifications  of  ob- 
structive dogma  and  ritual  in  organized  religion, 
and  of  outgrown  customs  and  laws  concerning  the 
family.  This  service  is  a  vital  one,  since  religion 
in  the  universal  sense  and  the  domestic  affections 
remain,  through  all  governmental  and  industrial 
changes,  the  supreme  forces  in  human  society. 

The  influence  of  Columbia,  and  of  all  well-con- 
ducted American  universities,  is  sure  to  become 
stronger  and  stronger  as  time  goes  on.  Our  free 
institutions  are  going  to  receive  a  great  service 
from  the  universities  they  have  fostered.  When- 
ever just  sentiments,  widely  diffused  through  the 
mass  of  the  people,  can  furnish  sufficient  guidance 
to  wise  public  action,  right  determinations  by  uni- 
versal suffrage  may  be  relied  on.  Questions  con- 
cerning independence,  union,  personal  liberty,  and 
religious  toleration  turn  on  such  sentiments,  and 
will  be  wisely  settled  by  the  mass  of  the  people. 
But  when  the  judicious  determination  of  a  public 
policy  depends  on  careful  collection  of  facts,  keen 
discrimination,  sound    reasoning,  and  sure  fore- 

397 


An  Urban  University 

sight,  our  republic  must  soon  follow,  as  all  other 
civilized  governments  already  do,  the  advice  of 
highly  trained  men,  who  have  made  themselves, 
by  long  study  and  observation,  experts  in  the 
matter  in  hand.  Questions  of  currency,  taxation, 
education,  and  public  health  belong  to  that  class 
of  public  questions  which  absolutely  require  for 
their  satisfactory  settlement  the  knowledge  and 
trained  judgment  of  experts;  and  the  only  wise 
decision  which  universal  suffrage  can  make  upon 
them  is  the  decision  to  abide  by  expert  opinion. 
The  more  complicated  and  difficult  the  public 
business  becomes,  the  more  pressing  the  need  of 
expert  management ;  and  soon  any  other  manage- 
ment will  be  simply  ruinous.  Now,  the  experts 
needed  are  going  to  be  trained  in  the  American 
universities  which,  like  Columbia,  maintain  at 
large  centers  of  population  well-equipped  schools 
for  all  the  learned  and  scientific  professions. 

The  sister  universities  hope  and  expect  that  the 
citizens  of  New  York  will  pour  riches  at  the  feet 
of  Columbia ;  but  they  know  that,  however  much 
New  York  may  do  for  the  University,  Columbia 
will  do  a  hundredfold  more  for  the  city  and  the 
State,  through  the  multifarious  services  of  her  sons, 
taught  here  to  discharge  well  their  duties  to 
society. 


398 


THE  FUNCTION  OF  EDUCATION  IN 
DEMOCRATIC  SOCIETY 

AN  ADDRESS 
Delivered  before  the  Brooklyn   Institute  on  October  2,  1897 
From  the  "Outlook" 


THE  FUNCTION  OF  EDUCATION  IN 
DEMOCRATIC  SOCIETY 


WHAT  the  function  of  education  shall  be  in  a 
democracy  will  depend  on  what  is  meant  by 
democratic  education. 

Too  many  of  us  think  of  education  for  the  people 
as  if  it  meant  only  learning  to  read,  write,  and  ci- 
pher. Now,  reading,  writing,  and  simple  ciphering 
are  merely  the  tools  by  the  diligent  use  of  which  a 
rational  education  is  to  be  obtained  through  years 
of  well-directed  labor.  They  are  not  ends  in  them- 
selves, but  means  to  the  great  end  of  enjoying  a 
rational  existence.  Under  any  civilized  form  of 
government,  these  arts  ought  to  be  acquired  by 
every  child  by  the  time  it  is  nine  years  of  age. 
Competent  teachers,  or  properly  conducted  schools, 
now  teach  reading,  writing,  and  spelling  simulta- 
neously, so  that  the  child  writes  every  word  it  reads, 
and,  of  course,  in  writing  spells  the  word.  Ear, 
eye,  and  hand  thus  work  together  from  the  begin- 
ning in  the  acquisition  of  the  arts  of  reading  and 
writing.  As  to  ciphering,  most  educational  experts 
26  401 


The  Function  of  Education 

have  become  convinced  that  the  amount  of  arith- 
metic which  an  educated  person  who  is  not  some 
sort  of  computer  needs  to  make  use  of  is  but  small, 
and  that  real  education  should  not  be  delayed  or 
impaired  for  the  sake  of  acquiring  a  skill  in  cipher- 
ing which  will  be  of  little  use  either  to  the  child 
or  to  the  adult.  Reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic, 
then,  are  not  the  goal  of  popular  education. 

The  goal  in  all  education,  democratic  or  other,  is 
always  receding  before  the  advancing  contestant, 
as  the  top  of  a  mountain  seems  to  retreat  before 
the  climber,  remoter  and  higher  summits  appearing 
successively  as  each  apparent  summit  is  reached. 
Nevertheless,  the  goal  of  the  moment  in  education 
is  always  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  the  train- 
ing of  some  permanent  capacity  for  productiveness 
or  enjoyment,  and  the  development  of  character. 
Democratic  education  being  a  very  new  thing  in 
the  world,  its  attainable  objects  are  not  yet  fully 
perceived.  Plato  taught  that  the  laborious  classes 
in  a  model  commonwealth  needed  no  education 
whatever.  That  seems  an  extraordinary  opinion 
for  a  great  philosopher  to  hold;  but,  while  we  won- 
der at  it,  let  us  recall  that  only  one  generation  ago 
in  some  of  our  Southern  States  it  was  a  crime  to 
teach  a  member  of  the  laborious  class  to  read.  In 
feudal  society  education  was  the  privilege  of  some 
of  the  nobility  and  clergy,  and  was  one  source  of 
the  power  of  these  two  small  classes.  Universal 
education  in  Germany  dates  only  from  the  Napo- 
leonic wars ;  and  its  object  has  been  to  make  in- 
telligent soldiers  and  subjects,  rather  than  happy 

402 


In  Democratic  Society 

freemen.  In  England  the  system  of  public  instruc- 
tion is  but  twenty-seven  years  old.  Moreover,  the 
fundamental  object  of  democratic  education  —  to 
lift  the  whole  population  to  a  higher  plane  of  intel- 
ligence, conduct,  and  happiness  — has  not  yet  been 
perfectly  apprehended  even  in  the  United  States. 
Too  many  of  our  own  people  think  of  popular 
education  as  if  it  were  only  a  protection  against 
dangerous  superstitions,  or  a  measure  of  police,  or 
a  means  of  increasing  the  national  productiveness 
in  the  arts  and  trades.  Our  generation  may,  there- 
fore, be  excused  if  it  has  but  an  incomplete  vision 
of  the  goal  of  education  in  a  democracy. 

I  proceed  to  describe  briefly  the  main  elements 
of  instruction  and  discipline  in  a  democratic  school. 
As  soon  as  the  easy  use  of  what  I  have  called  the 
tools  of  education  is  acquired,  and  even  while  this 
familiarity  is  being  gained,  the  capacities  for  pro- 
ductiveness and  enjoyment  should  begin  to  be 
trained  through  the  progressive  acquisition  of  an 
elementary  knowledge  of  the  external  world.  The 
democratic  school  should  begin  early — in  the  very 
first  grades — the  study  of  nature;  and  all  its  teach- 
ers should,  therefore,  be  capable  of  teaching  the 
elements  of  physical  geography,  meteorology,  bot- 
any, and  zoology,  the  whole  forming  in  the  child's 
mind  one  harmonious  sketch  of  its  complex  en- 
vironment. This  is  a  function  of  the  primary- 
school  teacher  which  our  fathers  never  thought 
of,  but  which  every  passing  year  brings  out  more 
and  more  clearly  as  a  prime  function  of  every  in- 
structor of  little  children.     Somewhat  later  in  the 

403 


The  Function  of  Education 

child's  progress  toward  maturity  the  great  sciences 
of  chemistry  and  physics  will  find  place  in  its 
course  of  systematic  training.  From  the  seventh 
or  eighth  year,  according  to  the  quality  and  capa- 
city of  the  child,  plane  and  solid  geometry,  the 
science  of  form,  should  find  a  place  among  the 
school  studies,  and  some  share  of  the  child's  atten- 
tion that  great  subject  should  claim  for  six  or  seven 
successive  years.  The  process  of  making  acquain- 
tance with  external  nature  through  the  elements  of 
these  various  sciences  should  be  interesting  and 
enjoyable  for  every  child.  It  should  not  be  pain- 
ful, but  delightful;  and  throughout  the  process 
the  child's  skill  in  the  arts  of  reading,  writing,  and 
ciphering  should  be  steadily  developed. 

There  is  another  part  of  every  child's  environ- 
ment with  which  he  should  early  begin  to  make 
acquaintance,  namely,  the  human  part.  The  story 
of  the  human  race  should  be  gradually  conveyed  to 
the  child's  mind  from  the  time  he  begins  to  read 
with  pleasure.  This  story  should  be  conveyed 
quite  as  much  through  biography  as  through  his- 
tory ;  and  with  the  descriptions  of  facts  and  real 
events  should  be  entwined  charming  and  uplifting 
products  of  the  imagination.  I  cannot  but  think, 
however,  that  the  wholly  desirable  imaginative 
literature  for  children  remains,  in  large  measure, 
to  be  written.  The  mythologies,  Old  Testament 
stories,  fairy  tales,  and  historical  romances  on 
which  we  are  accustomed  to  feed  the  childish  mind 
contain  a  great  deal  that  is  perverse,  barbarous,  or 
trivial;    and  to   this    infiltration    into  children's 

404 


In  Democratic  Society 

minds,  generation  after  generation,  of  immoral, 
cruel,  or  foolish  ideas,  is  probably  to  be  attributed, 
in  part,  the  slow  ethical  progress  of  the  race.  The 
common  justification  of  our  practice  is  that  chil- 
dren do  not  apprehend  the  evil  in  the  mental  pic- 
tures with  which  we  so  rashly  supply  them.  But 
what  should  we  think  of  a  mother  who  gave  her 
child  dirty  milk  or  porridge,  on  the  theory  that  the 
child  would  not  assimilate  the  dirt?  Should  we 
be  less  careful  of  mental  and  moral  food-materials  I 
It  is,  however,  as  undesirable  as  it  is  impossible  to 
try  to  feed  the  minds  of  children  only  upon  facts 
of  observation  or  record.  The  immense  product 
of  the  imagination  in  art  and  literature  is  a  con- 
crete fact  with  which  every  educated  human  being 
should  be  made  somewhat  familiar,  such  products 
being  a  very  real  part  of  every  individual's  actual 
environment. 

Into  the  education  of  the  great  majority  of  chil- 
dren there  enters  as  an  important  part  their  con- 
tribution to  the  daily  labor  of  the  household  and 
the  farm,  or,  at  least,  of  the  household.  It  is  one  of 
the  serious  consequences  of  the  rapid  concentration 
of  population  into  cities  and  large  towns,  and  of 
the  minute  division  of  labor  which  characterizes 
modern  industries,  that  this  wholesome  part  of  edu- 
cation is  less  easily  secured  than  it  used  to  be  when 
the  greater  part  of  the  population  was  engaged  in 
agriculture.  Organized  education  must,  therefore, 
supply  in  urban  communities  a  good  part  of  the 
manual  and  moral  training  which  the  cooperation 
of  children  in  the  work  of  father  and  mother 
27  405 


The  Function  of  Education 

affords  in  agricultural  commuDities.  Hence  the 
great  importance  in  any  urban  population  of  facili- 
ties for  training  children  to  accurate  hand-work, 
and  for  teaching  them  patience,  forethought,  and 
good  judgment  in  productive  labor. 

Lastly,  the  school  should  teach  every  child,  by 
precept,  by  example,  and  by  every  illustration  its 
reading  can  supply,  that  the  supreme  attainment 
for  any  individual  is  vigor  and  loveliness  of  char- 
acter. Industry,  persistence,  veracity  in  word  and 
act,  gentleness,  and  disinterestedness  should  be 
made  to  thrive  and  blossom  during  school  life  in 
the  hearts  of  the  children  who  bring  these  virtues 
from  their  homes  well  started,  and  should  be 
planted  and  tended  in  the  less  fortunate  children. 
Furthermore,  the  pupils  should  be  taught  that  what 
is  virtue  in  one  human  being  is  virtue  in  any 
group  of  human  beings,  large  or  small  —  a  village, 
a  city,  or  a  nation ;  that  the  ethical  principles 
which  should  govern  an  empire  are  precisely  the 
same  as  those  which  should  govern  an  individual ; 
and  that  selfishness,  greed,  falseness,  brutality,  and 
ferocity  are  as  hateful  and  degrading  in  a  multi- 
tude as  they  are  in  a  single  savage. 

The  education  thus  outlined  is  what  I  think 
should  be  meant  by  democratic  education.  It 
exists  to-day  only  among  the  most  intelligent  peo- 
ple, or  in  places  singularly  fortunate  in  regard  to 
the  organization  of  their  schools ;  but  though  it  be 
the  somewhat  distant  ideal  of  democratic  educa- 
tion, it  is  by  no  means  an  unattainable  ideal.  It 
is  the  reasonable  aim  of  the  public  school  in  a 

406 


In  Democratic  Society 

thoughtful  and  ambitious  democracy.  It,  of 
course,  demands  a  kind  of  teacher  much  above  the 
elementary-school  teacher  of  the  present  day,  and 
it  also  requires  a  larger  expenditure  upon  the  pub- 
lic school  than  is  at  all  customary  as  yet  in  this 
country.  But  that  better  kind  of  teacher  and  that 
larger  expenditure  are  imperatively  called  for,  if 
democratic  institutions  are  to  prosper,  and  to  pro- 
mote continuously  the  real  welfare  of  the  mass  of 
the  people.  The  standard  of  education  should  not 
be  set  at  the  now  attained  or  the  now  attainable. 
It  is  the  privilege  of  public  education  to  press  to- 
ward a  mark  remote. 

From  the  total  training  during  childhood  there 
should  result  in  the  child  a  taste  for  interesting 
and  improving  reading,  which  should  direct  and  in- 
spire its  subsequent  intellectual  life.  That  school- 
ing which  results  in  this  taste  for  good  reading, 
however  unsystematic  or  eccentric  the  schooling 
may  have  been,  has  achieved  a  main  end  of  elemen- 
tary education ;  and  that  schooling  which  does  not 
result  in  implanting  this  permanent  taste  has  failed. 
Guided  and  animated  by  this  impulse  to  acquire 
knowledge  and  exercise  his  imagination  through 
reading,  the  individual  will  continue  to  educate 
himself  all  through  life.  Without  that  deep-rooted 
impulsion  he  will  soon  cease  to  draw  on  the  accu- 
mulated wisdom  of  the  past  and  the  new  resources 
of  the  present,  and,  as  he  grows  older,  he  will 
live  in  a  mental  atmosphere  which  is  always  grow- 
ing thinner  and  emptier.  Do  we  not  all  know 
many  people  who  seem  to  live  in  a  mental  vacuum 

407 


Tbe  Function  of  Education 

—  to  whom,  indeed,  we  have  gi'eat  difficulty  in 
attributing  immortality,  because  they  apparently 
have  so  little  life  except  that  of  the  body  ?  Fifteen 
minutes  a  day  of  good  reading  would  have  given 
any  one  of  this  multitude  a  really  human  life. 
The  uplifting  of  the  democratic  masses  depends 
on  this  implanting  at  school  of  the  taste  for  good 
reading. 

Another  important  function  of  the  public  school 
in  a  democracy  is  the  discovery  and  development 
of  the  gift  or  capacity  of  each  individual  child. 
This  discovery  should  be  made  at  the  earliest  prac- 
ticable age,  and,  once  made,  should  always  influ- 
ence, and  sometimes  determine,  the  education  of 
the  individual.  It  is  for  the  interest  of  society 
to  make  the  most  of  every  useful  gift  or  faculty 
which  any  member  may  fortunately  possess ;  and 
it  is  one  of  the  main  advantages  of  fluent  and  mo- 
bile democratic  society  that  it  is  more  likely  than 
any  other  society  to  secure  the  fruition  of  indi- 
vidual capacities.  To  make  the  most  of  any  indi- 
vidual's peculiar  power,  it  is  important  to  discover 
it  early,  and  then  train  it  continuously  and  assidu- 
ously. It  is  wonderful  what  apparently  smaU  per- 
sonal gifts  may  become  the  means  of  conspicuous 
service  or  achievement,  if  only  they  get  discovered, 
trained,  and  applied.  A  quick  eye  for  shades  of 
color  enables  a  blacksmith  to  earn  double  wages  in 
sharpening  drills  for  quarrymen.  A  delicate  sense 
of  touch  -makes  the  fortune  of  a  wool-buyer.  An 
extraordinarily  perceptive  forefinger  gives  a  sur- 
geon the  advantage  over  all  his  competitors.    A 

408 


In  Democratic  Society 

fine  voice,  with  good  elocution  and  a  strong  mem- 
ory for  faces  and  parliamentary  rules,  may  give 
striking  political  success  to  a  man  otherwise  not 
remarkable.  In  the  ideal  democratic  school  no 
two  children  would  follow  the  same  course  of  study 
or  have  the  same  tasks,  except  that  they  would  all 
need  to  learn  the  use  of  the  elementary  tools  of 
education  —  reading,  writing,  and  ciphering.  The 
different  children  would  hardly  have  any  identical 
needs.  There  might  be  a  minimum  standard  of 
attainment  in  every  branch  of  study,  but  no  maxi- 
mum. The  perception  or  discovery  of  the  indi- 
vidual gift  or  capacity  would  often  be  effected  in 
the  elementary  school,  but  more  generally  in  the 
secondary;  and  the  making  of  these  discoveries 
should  be  held  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of 
the  teacher's  work.  The  vague  desire  for  equality 
in  a  democracy  has  worked  great  mischief  in  dem- 
ocratic schools.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  equal- 
ity of  gifts,  or  powers,  or  faculties,  among  either 
children  or  adults.  On  the  contrary,  there  is  the 
utmost  diversity ;  and  education  and  all  the  expe- 
rience of  life  increase  these  diversities,  because 
school,  and  the  earning  of  a  livelihood,  and  the  re- 
action of  the  individual  upon  his  surroundings,  all 
tend  strongly  to  magnify  innate  diversities.  The 
pretended  democratic  school  with  an  inflexible 
programme  is  fighting  not  only  against  nature,  but 
against  the  interests  of  democratic  society.  Flexi- 
bility of  programme  should  begin  in  the  elementary 
school,  years  before  the  period  of  secondary  educa- 
tion is  reached.  There  should  be  some  choice  of 
27*  409 


The  Function  of  Education 

subjects  of  study  by  ten  years  of  age,  and  much 
variety  by  fifteen  years  of  age.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  programmes  of  elementary  as  well  as  of  secon- 
dary schools  should  represent  fairly  the  chief  divi- 
sions of  knowledge,  namely,  language  and  literature, 
mathematics,  natural  science,  and  history,  besides 
drawing,  manual  work,  and  music.  If  school  pro- 
grammes fail  to  represent  the  main  varieties  of  in- 
tellectual activity,  they  will  not  afford  the  means  of 
discovering  the  individual  gifts  and  tendencies  of 
the  pupils. 

As  an  outcome  of  successful  democratic  educa- 
tion, certain  habits  of  thought  should  be  well 
established  in  the  minds  of  all  the  children  before 
any  of  them  are  obliged  to  leave  school  in  order  to 
help  in  the  support  of  the  family.  In  some  small 
field  each  child  should  acquire  a  capacity  for  exact 
observation,  and  as  a  natural  result  of  this  acquire- 
ment it  should  come  to  admire  and  respect  exact 
observation  in  aU  fields.  Again,  in  some  small 
field  it  should  acquire  the  capacity  for  exact  de- 
scription, and  a  respect  for  exact  description  in  all 
fields.  And,  lastly,  it  should  attain,  within  the 
limited  range  of  its  experience  and  observation,  the 
power  to  draw  a  justly  limited  inference  from  ob- 
served facts.  I  need  not  say  that  this  power  of 
just  inference  is  an  admirable  one,  which  many 
adults  never  attain  as  the  combined  result  of  their 
education  in  childhood  and  their  experience  in 
after  life.  Yet  democratic  institutions  will  not  be 
safe  until  a  great  majority  of  the  population  can 
be  trusted  not   only  to  observe  accurately  and 

410 


In  Democratic  Society 

state  precisely  the  results  of  observation,  but  also 
to  draw  just  inferences  from  those  results.  The 
masses  of  the  people  will  always  be  liable  to  dan- 
gerous delusions  so  long  as  their  schools  fail  to 
teach  the  difference  between  a  true  cause  and  an 
event  preceding  or  accompanying  a  supposed  ef- 
fect. Thus,  a  year  ago  our  nation  came  to  the  very 
brink  of  a  terrible  disaster  because  millions  of  our 
people  thought  the  fall  in  the  price  of  silver  during 
the  past  twenty  years  was  the  cause  of  the  fall  in 
price  of  many  other  American  products ;  whereas 
the  prime  cause  of  the  general  fall  of  prices,  in- 
cluding the  price  of  silver,  was  the  immense  im- 
provement which  has  taken  place  since  the  Civil 
War  in  the  manufacture  and  distribution  of  me- 
chanical power — an  operating  cause  which,  in  the 
near  future,  is  going  to  produce  much  more  strik- 
ing effects  than  it  has  yet  produced. 

Any  one  who  has  attained  to  the  capacity  for 
exact  observation  and  exact  description,  and  knows 
what  it  is  to  draw  a  correct  inference  from  well- 
determined  premises,  will  naturally  acquire  a  re- 
spect for  these  powers  when  exhibited  by  others 
in  fields  unknown  to  him.  Moreover,  any  one  who 
has  learned  how  hard  it  is  to  determine  a  fact,  to 
state  it  accurately,  and  to  draw  from  it  the  justly 
limited  inference,  will  be  sure  that  he  himself  can- 
not do  these  things,  except  in  a  very  limited  field. 
He  will  know  that  his  own  personal  activity  must 
be  limited  to  a  few  subjects,  if  his  capacity  is  to  be 
really  excellent  in  any.  He  will  be  sure  that  the 
too  common  belief  that  a  Yankee  can  turn  his 

411 


The  Function  of  Education 

hand  to  anything  is  a  mischievous  delusion.  Hav- 
ing, as  the  result  of  his  education,  some  vision  of 
the  great  range  of  knowledge  and  capacity  needed 
in  the  business  of  the  world,  he  will  respect  the 
trained  capacities  which  he  sees  developed  in  great 
diversity  in  other  people.  In  short,  he  will  come 
to  respect  and  confide  in  the  expert  in  every  field 
of  human  activity.  Confidence  in  experts,  and 
willingness  to  employ  them  and  abide  by  their 
decisions,  are  among  the  best  signs  of  intelligence 
in  an  educated  individual  or  an  educated  commu- 
nity; and  in  any  democracy  which  is  to  thrive, 
this  respect  and  confidence  must  be  felt  strongly 
by  the  majority  of  the  population.  In  the  conduct 
of  private  and  corporation  business  in  the  United 
States  the  employment  of  experts  is  well  recog- 
nized as  the  only  rational  and  successful  method. 
No  one  would  think  of  building  a  bridge  or  a  dam, 
or  setting  up  a  power-station  or  a  cotton-mill, 
without  relying  absolutely  upon  the  advice  of  in- 
telligent experts.  The  democracy  must  learn,  in 
governmental  affairs,  whether  municipal,  State,  or 
national,  to  employ  experts  and  abide  by  their 
decisions.  Such  complicated  subjects  as  taxation, 
finance,  and  public  works  cannot  be  wisely  man- 
aged by  popular  assembUes  or  their  committees,  or 
by  executive  of&cers  who  have  no  special  acquain- 
tance with  these  most  difficult  subjects.  Ameri- 
can experience  during  the  last  twenty  years 
demonstrates  that  popular  assemblies  have  become 
absolutely  incapable  of  dealing  wisely  with  any 
of  these  great  subjects.     A  legislature  or  a  Con- 

412 


In  Democratic  Society 

gress  can  indicate  by  legislation  the  object  it 
wishes  to  attain;  but  to  devise  the  means  of  at- 
taining that  object  in  taxation,  currency,  finance, 
or  public  works,  and  to  expend  the  money  appro- 
priated by  the  constituted  authorities  for  the  object, 
must  be  functions  of  experts.  Legislators  and 
executives  are  changed  so  frequently,  under  the 
American  system  of  local  representation,  that  few 
gain  anything  that  deserves  to  be  called  experience 
in  legislation  or  administration ;  while  the  few  who 
serve  long  terms  are  apt  to  be  so  absorbed  in  the 
routine  work  of  carrying  on  the  government  and 
managing  the  party  interests,  that  they  have  no 
time  either  for  thorough  research  or  for  invention. 
Under  present  conditions,  neither  expert  know- 
ledge nor  intellectual  leadership  can  reasonably 
be  expected  of  them.  Democracies  will  not  be 
safe  until  the  population  has  learned  that  govern- 
mental affairs  must  be  conducted  on  the  same 
principles  on  which  successful  private  and  corpo- 
rate business  is  conducted ;  and  therefore  it  should 
be  one  of  the  principal  objects  of  democratic  edu- 
cation so  to  train  the  minds  of  the  children,  that 
when  they  become  adult  they  shall  have  within 
their  own  experience  the  grounds  of  respect  for 
the  attainments  of  experts  in  every  branch  of  gov- 
ernmental, industrial,  and  social  activity,  and  of 
confidence  in  their  advice. 

The  next  function  of  education  in  a  democracy 
should  be  the  firm  planting  in  every  child's  mind 
of  certain  great  truths  which  lie  at  the  foundation 
of  the  democratic  social  theory.    The  first  of  these 

413 


The  Function  of  Education 

truths  is  the  intimate  dependence  of  each  human 
individual  on  a  multitude  of  other  individuals,  not 
in  infancy  alone,  but  at  every  moment  of  life  —  a 
dependence  which  increases  with  civilization  and 
with  the  development  of  urban  life.  This  sense 
of  mutual  dependence  among  multitudes  of  hu- 
man beings  can  be  brought  home  to  children  dur- 
ing school  life  so  clearly  and  strongly  that  they 
will  never  lose  it.  By  merely  teaching  children 
whence  come  their  food,  drink,  clothing,  and 
means  of  getting  light  and  heat,  and  how  these 
materials  are  supplied  through  the  labors  of  many 
individuals  of  many  races  scattered  all  over  the 
world,  the  school  may  illustrate  and  enforce  this 
doctrine  of  intricate  interdependence,  which  really 
underlies  modern  democracy  —  a  doctrine  never 
more  clearly  expressed  than  in  these  two  Christian 
sentences :  "  No  man  liveth  to  himself,"  and  "  We 
are  every  one  members  one  of  another."  The  de- 
pendence of  every  family,  and  indeed  every  person, 
on  the  habitual  fidelity  of  mechanics,  purveyors, 
railroad  servants,  cooks,  and  nurses  can  easily  be 
brought  home  to  children.  Another  mode  of  im- 
planting this  sentiment  is  to  trace  in  history  the 
obligations  of  the  present  generation  to  many 
former  generations.  These  obligations  can  be 
easily  pointed  out  in  things  material,  such  as  high- 
ways, waterworks,  fences,  houses,  and  barns,  and, 
in  New  England  at  least,  the  stone  walls  and  piles 
of  st6ne  gathered  from  the  arable  fields  by  the 
patient  labor  of  predecessors  on  the  family  farm. 
But  it  may  also  be  exhibited  to  the  pupils  of  sec- 

414 


In  Democratic  Society 

ondary  schools,  and,  in  some  measure,  to  the  pu- 
pils of  elementary  schools,  in  the  burdens  and 
sufferings  which  former  generations  have  borne 
for  the  establishment  of  freedom  of  conscience  and 
of  speech,  and  of  toleration  in  religion,  and  for  the 
development  of  the  institutions  of  public  justice. 
Of  course  history  is  full  of  examples  of  the  viola- 
tion of  this  fundamental  democratic  doctrine  of 
mutual  help.  Indeed,  history,  as  commonly  writ- 
ten, consists  chiefly  in  the  story  of  hideous  viola- 
tions of  this  principle,  such  as  wars  and  oppres- 
sions, and  the  selfish  struggles  of  class  against 
class,  church  against  church,  and  nation  against 
nation.  But  these  violations,  with  the  awful  suffer- 
ings that  follow  from  them,  may  be  made  to  point 
and  emphasize  the  truth  of  the  fundamental  doc- 
trine; and  unless  the  teaching  of  history  in  our 
public  schools  does  this,  it  were  better  that  the 
subject  should  not  be  taught  at  all. 

Democratic  education  should  also  inculcate  on 
every  child  the  essential  unity  of  a  democratic 
community,  in  spite  of  the  endless  diversities  of 
function,  capacity,  and  achievement  among  the 
individuals  who  compose  the  community.  This  is 
a  doctrine  kindred  with  that  just  mentioned,  but 
not  identical.  It  is  a  doctrine  essential  to  diffused 
democratic  contentment  and  self-respect,  but  ma- 
terially different  from  the  ordinary  conception  of 
equality  of  condition  as  a  result  of  democracy; 
for  unity  is  attainable,  while  equality  of  condition 
is  unnatural  and  unattainable.  The  freedom  and 
social  mobility  which  characterize  the  democratic 

415 


The  Function  of  Education 

state  permit,  and  indeed  bring  about,  striking  in- 
equalities of  condition ;  and  if  the  surface  of  dem- 
ocratic society  should  be  leveled  off  any  day, 
inequalities  would  reappear  on  the  morrow,  unless 
individual  freedom  and  social  mobility  should  be 
destroyed.  The  children  of  a  democratic  society 
should,  therefore,  be  taught  at  school,  with  the  ut- 
most explicitness,  and  with  vivid  illustrations,  that 
inequalities  of  condition  are  a  necessary  result  of 
freedom;  but  that  through  all  inequalities  should 
flow  the  constant  sense  of  essential  unity  in  aim 
and  spirit.  This  unity  in  freedom  is  the  social 
goal  of  democracy,  the  supreme  good  of  all  ranks 
of  society,  of  the  highest  no  less  than  of  the  lowest. 
Another  ethical  principle  which  a  democracy 
should  teach  to  all  its  children  is  the  familiar 
Christian  doctrine  that  service  rendered  to  others 
is  the  surest  source  of  one's  own  satisfaction  and 
happiness.  This  doctrine  is  a  tap-root  of  private 
happiness  among  all  classes  and  conditions  of  men; 
but  in  a  democracy  it  is  important  to  public  hap- 
piness and  well-being.  In  a  democracy  the  public 
functionary  is  not  a  master,  but  a  trusted  servant. 
By  excellence  of  service  he  earns  not  only  a  pecu- 
niary consideration,  but  also  respect  and  gratitude. 
This  statement  applies  just  as  well  to  a  letter- 
carrier,  a  fireman,  or  a  village  selectman,  as  it  does 
to  a  high-school  teacher,  a  judge,  or  a  governor. 
Democracy  applies  literally  the  precept,  "  If  any 
man  would  be  great  among  you,  let  him  be  your 
servant."  The  quality  of  this  faithful  service  and 
its  rewards  should  be  carefully  taught  in  school  to 
all  children  of  a  democracy.    The  children  should 

416 


In  Democratic  Society 

learn  that  the  desire  to  be  of  great  public  service 
is  the  highest  of  all  ambitions ;  and  they  should  be 
shown  in  biography  and  in  history  how  the  men 
and  women  who,  as  martyrs,  teachers,  inventors, 
legislators,  and  judges,  have  rendered  great  service, 
have  thereby  won  enduring  gratitude  and  honor. 

Since  it  is  a  fundamental  object  of  a  democracy 
to  promote  the  happiness  and  well-being  of  the 
masses  of  the  population,  the  democratic  school 
should  explicitly  teach  children  to  see  and  utilize 
the  means  of  happiness  which  lie  about  them  in 
the  beauties  and  splendors  of  nature.  The  school 
should  be  a  vehicle  of  daily  enjoyment,  and  the 
teacher  should  be  to  the  child  a  minister  of  joy. 
Democratic  society  has  already  learned  how  to  pro- 
vide itself  —  at  least,  in  the  more  intelligent  com- 
munities —  with  open  grounds  in  cities,  and  parks 
in  suburbs,  and  has  in  these  ways  begun  to  pro- 
vide directly  for  the  wholesome  pleasures  of  the 
population.  It  should  be  a  recognized  function 
of  the  democratic  school  to  teach  the  children  and 
their  parents  how  to  utilize  all  accessible  means  of 
innocent  enjoyment. 

Finally,  the  democratic  school  must  teach  its 
children  what  the  democratic  nobility  is.  The 
well-trained  child  will  read  in  history  and  poetry 
about  patricians,  nobles,  aristocrats,  princes,  kings, 
and  emperors,  some  of  them  truly  noble,  but  many 
vile ;  and  he  will  also  read  with  admiring  sympathy 
of  the  loyalty  and  devotion  which  through  all  the 
centuries  have  been  felt  by  generous  men  and 
women  of  humbler  condition  toward  those  of 
higher.    He  will  see  what  immense  virtues  these 

417 


The  Function  of  Education 

personal  loyalties  have  developed,  even  when  the 
objects  of  loyalty  have  been  unworthy ;  and  he  will 
ask  himself,  "  What  are  to  be  the  corresponding 
virtues  in  a  democracy  ? "  The  answer  is.  Fidelity 
to  all  forms  of  duty  which  demand  courage,  self- 
denial,  and  zeal,  and  loyal  devotion  to  the  demo- 
cratic ideals  of  freedom,  serviceableness,  unity, 
toleration,  public  justice,  and  public  joyfulness. 
The  children  should  learn  that  the  democratic  no- 
bility exists,  and  must  exist  if  democracy  is  to 
produce  the  highest  types  of  character;  but  that 
it  will  consist  only  of  men  and  women  of  noble 
character,  produced  under  democratic  conditions 
by  the  combined  influences  of  fine  inherited  quali- 
ties, careful  education,  and  rich  experience.  They 
should  learn  to  admire  and  respect  persons  of  this 
quality,  and  to  support  them,  on  occasion,  in  pref- 
erence to  the  ignoble.  They  should  learn  that 
mere  wealth  has  no  passport  to  the  democratic 
nobility,  and  that  membership  in  it  can  be  trans- 
mitted to  children  only  through  the  transmission 
of  the  sound  mental  and  moral  qualities  which 
are  its  sole  warrant.  This  membership  should  be 
the  rightful  ambition  of  parents  for  their  children, 
and  of  children  for  their  future  selves.  Every 
person  of  the  true  quality,  no  matter  what  his 
station  or  vocation,  is  admitted  of  right  to  this 
simple  democratic  nobility,  which  home,  church, 
and  school  unite  in  recruiting ;  and  there  are,  con- 
sequently, more  real  nobles  under  the  democratic 
form  of  government  than  under  any  other. 


418 


E15 


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